about graduate school,knees(physical therapy), Toastmasters life, photo, and job.
2008年10月31日 星期五
2008年10月29日 星期三
[心理] \(^^\)(/^^)/ 表情符號
\(^^\)(/^^)/
1. 成大 96年 林東青 也有研究 表情符號
蔡美慧指導
成大 96年 林東青《男女在即時通上使用表情符號及創意書寫方式的差異》
Gender Differences in Emoticon Use and Creative Writings on Instant Messaging
Key : creative writing, emotion
1. 成大 96年 林東青 也有研究 表情符號
蔡美慧指導
成大 96年 林東青《男女在即時通上使用表情符號及創意書寫方式的差異》
Gender Differences in Emoticon Use and Creative Writings on Instant Messaging
Key : creative writing, emotion
2008年10月28日 星期二
[生物] typing LB4-7 惠珍Typing
II. FORM AND FUNCTION IN ONTOGENY
There is evidence (1) that the issues of the brain and the rest of the body constitute an organic, interdependent unit; and (2) that organisms are not programmed for their behavior by an ex-machina force, but instead they develop a program ontogenetically together with nervous and nonnervous tissues.
(1) Mutual influence in the development of Nervous and Other Tissue
Let us first consider the developmental relationship between nervous and other tissue. Our discussion can be divided into (a) metabolic or trophic relationships and (b) nonmetabolic, particularly mechanical relationhships.
(a) Trophic Relationships. Nervous tissue stands in an intimate relationship to other tissue anatomically contiguous to it. This is shown most clearly by the essential role played by nerves in the process of regeneration. There are a number of studies available which indicate that regeneration of an entire limb in lower vertebrates (fish, lizards, urodele, salamander, larval anuran, and postmetamorphic frog) and probably also in invertebrates is dependent on the presence of nerves in the amputated stump (Singer, 1959, Gutmann, 1964).
In a series of experiments by Schotté and Butler (1944), Singer (1947), and their students, and Nicholas (1949), it has been shown that an amputated limb will not regenerate unless an intact nerve is either present in the remaining stump from the beginning or is transplanted into the cut surface by autograft (however, see Thornton and Steen, 1962). Morphogenesis, that is, an orderly sequence of tissue differentiation and development of the lost appendage, will not ordinarily take place in the absence of living nervous issue during the very first stage of regeneration. If all nerves are removed form this stump during the earliest period, mitotic activity is dramatically slowed down; eventually some small amount of connective tissue, cartilage, and muscle may form in a disorderly nonfunctional fashion, giving a shriveled and shapeless appearance to the stump. If viable nervous tissue is not present from the start of the amputation but brought into the so-called blastema shortly afterward, regeneration takes place but the regenerate limb is poorly developed. The nerve need not be present throughout the entire period of regeneration; once the limb has begun to grow and tissues are sufficiently differentiated, the nerve may be removed without impariment of the morphegenetic potency acquired by these tissues during their earliest stage of formation. Singer (1974) has shown that it does not matter for regeneration what type of nerve, whether motor, sensory, or autonomic, is present in the blastema. It is merely the amount of nervous tissue present that controls the regenerative possibilities. Apparently a product of nerve-cell metabolism induces morphogenesis in the blastema.
These studies leave many questions about the biochemistry of embryology and growth unanswered; yet they do give us a glimpse of the complete interdependence and the natural integration of different tissues in the animal body. This impression is further strengthened if we consider some of the other trophic relationships that nerves have to peripheral tissue (for instance, the well-known fact of denervation atrophy). If the axon of a motor neuron is cut, the portion distal of the cut will die promptly, presumably because of its separation from its source of supply of vital substances (Gerard, 1950). But this is not the extent of the degenerative changes following the section of a motor nerve. The muscle innervated by the nerve will also undergo dystrophic changes with an extremely characteristic histological appearance. The loss of muscle substance is not due to a “functional” disturbance, such as the inhibition of nerve impulse transmission (Hamburger & Levi-Montalcini, 1950) nor due to disuse of the muscle; the muscle cannot be saved from atrophy by passive exercise. Indeed, the metabolic interdependence of nonnervous, peripheral tissue and nervous tissue is proven by the fact that the nerves themselves must have anatomic continuity with muscles for proper metabolic function. Severance of nerve from muscle will induce retrograde changes in the body of the neuron (the soma), known as chromatolysis, which is a sign of dysfunction.
Perhaps the most striking evidence for the subtle but definite interdependence of peripheral structures and the central nervous system is provided by the stunted growth resulting from large cerebro-hemispheric and specifically parietal lobe lesions in the neonate human. This phenomenon was described by Macdonald Critchley (1955) and has been generally known to occur in connection with a condition called infantile hemiplegia. The stunting of the body side contralateral to the brain lesion occurs both in congenital and in acquired infantile hemiplegia and is not due to disuse, first because all tissues in the extremities involved are equally affected and second, because the arrest of growth starts at birth in the congenital cases, that is, before either the affected or the unaffected side is actively being used (Holt, 1961). These cases are even more interesting in the present context than the denervation atrohy, because here we see a relation between the highest level of the central nervous system and nonnervous structures of the periphery. Because the cells of the cerebral cortex are separated from those on the periphery by several internuncial neurons, there is an indication of a very subtle control that the higher centers of the central nervous system appear to exe3rcise upon the development of the body as a whole.
(b) Mechanical Relationships. In addition to the metabolic influences between nervous tissue and other tissue, morphogenesis is controlled by several other factors, some of which are indirectly related to neurophysiology. A good illustration is furnished by the mechanical forces exerted upon growing tissue, particularly bone, which stimulate cell division in certain directions. As muscles are innervated and begin to function, they exert a pull upon the boned to which they are attached and thus help shape the internal structure of this tissue.
It has often been noted (and, unfortunately, frequently been emphasized out of all proportion to its true importance) that the architecture of certain organs is ideally suited to their function. An excellent example of this was provided by D’Arcy Thompson (1942) who wrote, “In all the mechanical side of anatomy nothing can be more beautiful than the construction of a vulture’s metacarpal bone. The engineer sees in it a perfect Warren’s truss, just such a one as is often used for a main rib in an aeroplane.” The fundamental schema of the shape of individual bones and the skeleton as a whole are undoubtedly the result of evolutionary processes including selection and adaptation on a phylogenetic rather than an ontogenetic scale (Hackenbroch, 1957-1962). However, the actual realization of what is only potentially present in the fertilized egg is largely dependent upon factors which are active during ontogenesis. This is vest illustrated by the development of the internal structure of bones. In 1866, a Swiss engineer, Culmann, noted that the internal trusses in the head of a human femur, anatomically known as trabeculae, were oriented in exactly the direction of the lines of maximum internal stress. He drew a diagram of a curved rod showing the lines of stress resulting from the application of a load from above (Fig. 1.1a). The model somewhat resembled the head of a derrick which he had just designed, and it is therefore referred to as a crane’s head. It bears a striking similarity to a section of the head of the femur (Fig. 1.1c). Culmann’s idea gave rise to J. Wolff’s famous theory expressed in his monograph on The Law of Bone Transformation (1870), according to which every change in the function of a bone produces changes in its trabecular architecture and external form in conformity with mathematical, static laws. The theory has since been criticized (Küntsher, 1934, 1936), modified (Murray, 1936), and elaborated upon (Evans, 1955, 1957, 1960; Carey, 1929). However, the idea is widely accepted today that muscles, through the tonus already present on early embryonic life, exert essential forces upon the growing bone. These pressures, together with those produced by differential growth of various parts of the embryo, result in stresses and strains which are the prerequisite stimuli for proper bone formation.
There is evidence (1) that the issues of the brain and the rest of the body constitute an organic, interdependent unit; and (2) that organisms are not programmed for their behavior by an ex-machina force, but instead they develop a program ontogenetically together with nervous and nonnervous tissues.
(1) Mutual influence in the development of Nervous and Other Tissue
Let us first consider the developmental relationship between nervous and other tissue. Our discussion can be divided into (a) metabolic or trophic relationships and (b) nonmetabolic, particularly mechanical relationhships.
(a) Trophic Relationships. Nervous tissue stands in an intimate relationship to other tissue anatomically contiguous to it. This is shown most clearly by the essential role played by nerves in the process of regeneration. There are a number of studies available which indicate that regeneration of an entire limb in lower vertebrates (fish, lizards, urodele, salamander, larval anuran, and postmetamorphic frog) and probably also in invertebrates is dependent on the presence of nerves in the amputated stump (Singer, 1959, Gutmann, 1964).
In a series of experiments by Schotté and Butler (1944), Singer (1947), and their students, and Nicholas (1949), it has been shown that an amputated limb will not regenerate unless an intact nerve is either present in the remaining stump from the beginning or is transplanted into the cut surface by autograft (however, see Thornton and Steen, 1962). Morphogenesis, that is, an orderly sequence of tissue differentiation and development of the lost appendage, will not ordinarily take place in the absence of living nervous issue during the very first stage of regeneration. If all nerves are removed form this stump during the earliest period, mitotic activity is dramatically slowed down; eventually some small amount of connective tissue, cartilage, and muscle may form in a disorderly nonfunctional fashion, giving a shriveled and shapeless appearance to the stump. If viable nervous tissue is not present from the start of the amputation but brought into the so-called blastema shortly afterward, regeneration takes place but the regenerate limb is poorly developed. The nerve need not be present throughout the entire period of regeneration; once the limb has begun to grow and tissues are sufficiently differentiated, the nerve may be removed without impariment of the morphegenetic potency acquired by these tissues during their earliest stage of formation. Singer (1974) has shown that it does not matter for regeneration what type of nerve, whether motor, sensory, or autonomic, is present in the blastema. It is merely the amount of nervous tissue present that controls the regenerative possibilities. Apparently a product of nerve-cell metabolism induces morphogenesis in the blastema.
These studies leave many questions about the biochemistry of embryology and growth unanswered; yet they do give us a glimpse of the complete interdependence and the natural integration of different tissues in the animal body. This impression is further strengthened if we consider some of the other trophic relationships that nerves have to peripheral tissue (for instance, the well-known fact of denervation atrophy). If the axon of a motor neuron is cut, the portion distal of the cut will die promptly, presumably because of its separation from its source of supply of vital substances (Gerard, 1950). But this is not the extent of the degenerative changes following the section of a motor nerve. The muscle innervated by the nerve will also undergo dystrophic changes with an extremely characteristic histological appearance. The loss of muscle substance is not due to a “functional” disturbance, such as the inhibition of nerve impulse transmission (Hamburger & Levi-Montalcini, 1950) nor due to disuse of the muscle; the muscle cannot be saved from atrophy by passive exercise. Indeed, the metabolic interdependence of nonnervous, peripheral tissue and nervous tissue is proven by the fact that the nerves themselves must have anatomic continuity with muscles for proper metabolic function. Severance of nerve from muscle will induce retrograde changes in the body of the neuron (the soma), known as chromatolysis, which is a sign of dysfunction.
Perhaps the most striking evidence for the subtle but definite interdependence of peripheral structures and the central nervous system is provided by the stunted growth resulting from large cerebro-hemispheric and specifically parietal lobe lesions in the neonate human. This phenomenon was described by Macdonald Critchley (1955) and has been generally known to occur in connection with a condition called infantile hemiplegia. The stunting of the body side contralateral to the brain lesion occurs both in congenital and in acquired infantile hemiplegia and is not due to disuse, first because all tissues in the extremities involved are equally affected and second, because the arrest of growth starts at birth in the congenital cases, that is, before either the affected or the unaffected side is actively being used (Holt, 1961). These cases are even more interesting in the present context than the denervation atrohy, because here we see a relation between the highest level of the central nervous system and nonnervous structures of the periphery. Because the cells of the cerebral cortex are separated from those on the periphery by several internuncial neurons, there is an indication of a very subtle control that the higher centers of the central nervous system appear to exe3rcise upon the development of the body as a whole.
(b) Mechanical Relationships. In addition to the metabolic influences between nervous tissue and other tissue, morphogenesis is controlled by several other factors, some of which are indirectly related to neurophysiology. A good illustration is furnished by the mechanical forces exerted upon growing tissue, particularly bone, which stimulate cell division in certain directions. As muscles are innervated and begin to function, they exert a pull upon the boned to which they are attached and thus help shape the internal structure of this tissue.
It has often been noted (and, unfortunately, frequently been emphasized out of all proportion to its true importance) that the architecture of certain organs is ideally suited to their function. An excellent example of this was provided by D’Arcy Thompson (1942) who wrote, “In all the mechanical side of anatomy nothing can be more beautiful than the construction of a vulture’s metacarpal bone. The engineer sees in it a perfect Warren’s truss, just such a one as is often used for a main rib in an aeroplane.” The fundamental schema of the shape of individual bones and the skeleton as a whole are undoubtedly the result of evolutionary processes including selection and adaptation on a phylogenetic rather than an ontogenetic scale (Hackenbroch, 1957-1962). However, the actual realization of what is only potentially present in the fertilized egg is largely dependent upon factors which are active during ontogenesis. This is vest illustrated by the development of the internal structure of bones. In 1866, a Swiss engineer, Culmann, noted that the internal trusses in the head of a human femur, anatomically known as trabeculae, were oriented in exactly the direction of the lines of maximum internal stress. He drew a diagram of a curved rod showing the lines of stress resulting from the application of a load from above (Fig. 1.1a). The model somewhat resembled the head of a derrick which he had just designed, and it is therefore referred to as a crane’s head. It bears a striking similarity to a section of the head of the femur (Fig. 1.1c). Culmann’s idea gave rise to J. Wolff’s famous theory expressed in his monograph on The Law of Bone Transformation (1870), according to which every change in the function of a bone produces changes in its trabecular architecture and external form in conformity with mathematical, static laws. The theory has since been criticized (Küntsher, 1934, 1936), modified (Murray, 1936), and elaborated upon (Evans, 1955, 1957, 1960; Carey, 1929). However, the idea is widely accepted today that muscles, through the tonus already present on early embryonic life, exert essential forces upon the growing bone. These pressures, together with those produced by differential growth of various parts of the embryo, result in stresses and strains which are the prerequisite stimuli for proper bone formation.
2008年10月27日 星期一
[其他] Lexical Semantics Website
中文詞彙語意資料的整合與擷取：詞彙語意學的觀點
Wordnet (http://wordnet.princeton.edu/)
Ontosaurus (http://www.isi.edu/isd/ontosaurus.html )
Ontosaurus (http://www.isi.edu/isd/ontosaurus.html)
Lexical Freenet (http://www.cinfn.com/doc/ )
FramNet (http://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/)
Hownet (http://www.keenage.com
http://nlp2.csie.org/%7Edenehs/word_relation.html
Wordnet (http://wordnet.princeton.edu/)
Ontosaurus (http://www.isi.edu/isd/ontosaurus.html )
Ontosaurus (http://www.isi.edu/isd/ontosaurus.html)
Lexical Freenet (http://www.cinfn.com/doc/ )
FramNet (http://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/)
Hownet (http://www.keenage.com
http://nlp2.csie.org/%7Edenehs/word_relation.html
2008年10月21日 星期二
銀行放款趨於警慎，財物槓桿高的公司先倒
財物槓桿高的公司
l 永大上海廠獲利金雞母—兩岸電梯維修商機雄厚
l 印度最大石化集團 大規模關廠裁員 Nov 12
l
Real estate
l 建築融資 民營銀行限縮
l 弱勢族 房貸卡債大紓困
金控
l 民營銀行拉客 存半年給3%
l 富邦金擬併日盛證 金管會不反對
l 亞洲金融風暴
l 私募基金
l 美國運通 獲准改制商銀 Nov 12
製造業
l 製造業申請紓困逾十家
l 美三大車廠 瀕臨破產 Nov 11
Retail
l 撐不住了 美國電路城聲請破產 Nov 11
l 星巴克獲利劇減 麥當勞銷售增 Nov 12
中小企業
l 二胎房貸 中小企周轉管道
政府
l 防裁員關廠 官員繃緊神經
l 金援中大企 政院加碼6,000億
l 中小企：大企業拖款 該管管了
l 中小企申請紓困 暴增14倍
To be continued
l 永大上海廠獲利金雞母—兩岸電梯維修商機雄厚
l 印度最大石化集團 大規模關廠裁員 Nov 12
l
Real estate
l 建築融資 民營銀行限縮
l 弱勢族 房貸卡債大紓困
金控
l 民營銀行拉客 存半年給3%
l 富邦金擬併日盛證 金管會不反對
l 亞洲金融風暴
l 私募基金
l 美國運通 獲准改制商銀 Nov 12
製造業
l 製造業申請紓困逾十家
l 美三大車廠 瀕臨破產 Nov 11
Retail
l 撐不住了 美國電路城聲請破產 Nov 11
l 星巴克獲利劇減 麥當勞銷售增 Nov 12
中小企業
l 二胎房貸 中小企周轉管道
政府
l 防裁員關廠 官員繃緊神經
l 金援中大企 政院加碼6,000億
l 中小企：大企業拖款 該管管了
l 中小企申請紓困 暴增14倍
To be continued
2008年10月18日 星期六
[生物] 手語 & body languages
手語 from Wiki
中華名國聽障人協會
公視 聽聽看
Non verbal language : body languages and gesture
Video :Studio Classroom/Hosts Rachel and Gabe discuss Body Language/
body language doesn't represent meaningful word
中華名國聽障人協會
公視 聽聽看
Non verbal language : body languages and gesture
Video :Studio Classroom/Hosts Rachel and Gabe discuss Body Language/
body language doesn't represent meaningful word
2008年10月13日 星期一
[心理] Words & Meaning~字彙教學
1.Meaning《教育學方法論》中討論的『意義』
2.字彙教學
(廖柏森 淺談學術英文搭配詞)
兒童color poem (Everyone Could Be Shakespeare)
English on stop (on-line test)
由發音學字彙
[心理] 同義字與相關字典網站
同義字與相關字典網站
1. 中正大學
2. Definition from Wiki
3.國台語同義字
4. Website:
英文
http://www.synonym.com/ http://patentmaps.com/3i/3i-conceptEngine-f.htm
http://www.acronymfinder.com/
http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/
http://www.answers.com/
中文
http://www.edictionary.org/ 線上字典網
http://ce.fhl.net/dictionary.htm
1. 中正大學
2. Definition from Wiki
3.國台語同義字
4. Website:
英文
http://www.synonym.com/ http://patentmaps.com/3i/3i-conceptEngine-f.htm
http://www.acronymfinder.com/
http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/
http://www.answers.com/
中文
http://www.edictionary.org/ 線上字典網
http://ce.fhl.net/dictionary.htm
2008年10月12日 星期日
Knee cartilage replacement therapy
From Discovery Health 21st Centuayr Medicine 3- Regenerating Life DVD
Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) and Carticel
2008年10月9日 星期四
2008年10月8日 星期三
2008年10月5日 星期日
2008年10月1日 星期三
[生物] checking-typing LB449~450惠珍 Typing and checking
P449~450惠珍
《Biological Foundations of Language》Preface: The history of the biological language
Assigned reading: Page 449-450
1. Typing
A very serious shortcoming of most Roman writers on language was the limitation of their discussions to Latin and Greek, which Steinthal regarded as the chief factor for their failure to formulate a more general language theory. In the writings of Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79 A.D.) and of Strabo (63 B.C.-24 A.D.) only Greek and Latin are given serious consideration. One of the few to include other languages as well was the Epicurean Diogenes of Oinoanda (2nd century A.D.) who wrote that men created language everywhere quite naturally; it was not a conscious invention or the result of convention. No single man or god could have created it [24].
The church fathers and Christian thinkers of the first centuries of our era, intent on defining man’s relationship to God, were content to establish God’s rule over language, and language differences were not of primary concern to them.[25] These differences were to become a problem, once church had begun to spread among people with different languages. The study of languages and language theory would receive new impetus whenever a country was to be Christianized.
In the succeeding 1500 years the interpretation of language in terms of revelation and biblical exegesis stood in the foreground of language theory. The natural basis of language was never completely lost to view, and some of the most important theologians included it in their discussion.
The greater thinker of the fourth century, St. Augustine (394-430), placed the origin of language in man’s reason, as had the stoics, and compared the evolution of language with language development in children.[26]. Boethius (480-525), a Roman statesman and philosopher, who translated Aristotle into Latin, emphasized the difference between language and thought. Articulated language is different everywhere, but tears, mourning, and emotional expression are universally understood. The North African, Fabius Caludius Gordianus Fulgentius (480-550)wrote a world history, in which he expressed the belief that language did not come from God, but had grown from “wild root”. For the Bishop Isidor of Sevilla (565-636) language was an inseparable characteristics of a people; he believed everyone learned the language of his race without any apparent effort.[27]
After an interval of four centuries in which men were absorbed by the problems of the political intergration of Europe, the interest in the problem in language was revived with the rise of Schola. Its founder, Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), wrote on language in the years after 1060. Language only approximates reality and is not identical with God’s creation. IT may, therefore, be subjected to analytic study and psychological interpretation. This attitude toward language is also seen in the writings of his student Peter Abelard (1079-1142) who was the most influential language photosphere of his time. He wrote in his “Logia” (ca 1113-1123) that different designation of the same thing- by different languages- did not imply different meanings; men had only assigned a variety of sounds to the same thing. What people meant was everywhere the same, because meaning was a part of nature. Language was not God’s creation; the man of reason is master of his language and never ruled by it, Latin does not provide the basis or limit of human reason; like all knowledge it can be subject to improvement.[28]
A few Medieval writers placed even greater emphasis on the emphasis on the natural aspect pf language. Petrus Heliae, who taught grammar in Paris after 1140, suggested that there are ,ore systems of grammar as yet unknown and that all languages including the dialects can be systematically described and rationally understood [29]. A contemporary anonymous opusculum of he Bernardine Monastery of Ceteaux expressed the thought that language is the product of a natural law and attempted to substantiate this claim by the law of primacy for the letter a in all languages known [30]. But the most theories did not go that far. Abelard’s student John of Salisbury (ca 1115-1180), wrote in his “Metalogicon’ of 1160 that man received his reason and his ability to speak from the “natura clementissima parens ominum,’ but that names must have been invented by man. ( Language was given again being considered primarily in terms of names) [31]. This separation between a recognized natural language capacity and ,an-made language was maintained by most medieval authors including Petrus Hispanus (ca 1220-1227) who later became Pope John ⅩⅩⅠ, John de Dacia professor at Paris in 1280 and Thomas Aquians (1225-1274). Roger Bacon (ca 1214-1294) was to write in 1292 that differences between languages were based on physiological and climatic factors but proposed that language was the result of willful human invention [32].
According to Ricobald of Ferrara, the separation of language capacity and languages was supported by a miracle he observed in 1293. A deaf-mute acquired hearing and speech after praying at the grave of St. Anthony Padua; he could repeat what was said to him but did not understand the meaning of the words. This proved that the miracle could only establish the God-given physiological language ability but not the knowledge of a particular language which had to be learned [33].
Observes believed that there must a natural language, the direct expression of untutored language ability. Emperor Frederic Ⅱ (1192/3-1250) was seeking this natural language when he repeated Psametichos’ experiment which failed because the children died. William of Shyreswood (died 1267), an Englishman professor at the University of Paris, included the “signs of the sick” and “ natural sounds” in his definition of man’s language. The Dominican and later Archbishop of Caneterbury, Robert Kilwardby )died 1279) proclaimed that grammar should establish rules for language in general. The characteristics of any one language were as irrelevant to a science of grammar as the, material of the measuring rod or the physical characteristics of objects were to geometry [34]. The natural origin and basic similarity of all languages was also emphasized by a contemporary anonymous tractate, “ De modis significandi” and by Thomas of Erfurth at the end of the thirteenth centenary [35].
[24] Borst, A., Pp. 164, 178.
[25] ＿＿＿. Pp. 237,356.
[26] ＿＿＿. Pp. 392.
[27] ＿＿＿. Pp. 424,426,450.
[28] ＿＿＿. Pp..450,605,606,632,635
[29] ＿＿＿. Pp.636-7
[30] ＿＿＿. Pp.638
[31] ＿＿＿. Pp..640
[32] ＿＿＿. Pp..797-800,810 et seq., 901-902
[33] ＿＿＿. P.864
[34] ＿＿＿. Pp..756,796,799
[35] ＿＿＿. Pp..798,895
2. Definition
Impetus:促進;推動力;刺激
exegesis: 釋;註釋
statesman: 政治家
mourning:悲傷
designation: 指定;任命
opusculum: 小品;音樂小品;文學小品
Bernardine:西都修會的
Monastery: 男子的)修道院;僧院[C]
Stoic: 禁慾主義者; S-)斯多葛學派哲學家
Articulate: 1. 使成為系統的整體;使相互連貫 ; 2. 發音清晰的,可聽懂的
Interval: 戲劇,音樂會等的)幕間,休息時間
Schola: 1) An intermission of work, leisure for learning, learned conversation, debate, disputation, lecture, dissertation. 2) A meeting place for teachers and pupils, place for instruction, place of learning, school. 3)The disciples of a teacher, body of followers, school, sect. (--Elementary Latin Dictionary, OUP
Approximated reality: This painting approximates reality. ->这幅画逼真
Designation: 命名;稱號
Substantiate: 使實體化
《Biological Foundations of Language》Preface: The history of the biological language
Assigned reading: Page 449-450
1. Typing
A very serious shortcoming of most Roman writers on language was the limitation of their discussions to Latin and Greek, which Steinthal regarded as the chief factor for their failure to formulate a more general language theory. In the writings of Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79 A.D.) and of Strabo (63 B.C.-24 A.D.) only Greek and Latin are given serious consideration. One of the few to include other languages as well was the Epicurean Diogenes of Oinoanda (2nd century A.D.) who wrote that men created language everywhere quite naturally; it was not a conscious invention or the result of convention. No single man or god could have created it [24].
The church fathers and Christian thinkers of the first centuries of our era, intent on defining man’s relationship to God, were content to establish God’s rule over language, and language differences were not of primary concern to them.[25] These differences were to become a problem, once church had begun to spread among people with different languages. The study of languages and language theory would receive new impetus whenever a country was to be Christianized.
In the succeeding 1500 years the interpretation of language in terms of revelation and biblical exegesis stood in the foreground of language theory. The natural basis of language was never completely lost to view, and some of the most important theologians included it in their discussion.
The greater thinker of the fourth century, St. Augustine (394-430), placed the origin of language in man’s reason, as had the stoics, and compared the evolution of language with language development in children.[26]. Boethius (480-525), a Roman statesman and philosopher, who translated Aristotle into Latin, emphasized the difference between language and thought. Articulated language is different everywhere, but tears, mourning, and emotional expression are universally understood. The North African, Fabius Caludius Gordianus Fulgentius (480-550)wrote a world history, in which he expressed the belief that language did not come from God, but had grown from “wild root”. For the Bishop Isidor of Sevilla (565-636) language was an inseparable characteristics of a people; he believed everyone learned the language of his race without any apparent effort.[27]
After an interval of four centuries in which men were absorbed by the problems of the political intergration of Europe, the interest in the problem in language was revived with the rise of Schola. Its founder, Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), wrote on language in the years after 1060. Language only approximates reality and is not identical with God’s creation. IT may, therefore, be subjected to analytic study and psychological interpretation. This attitude toward language is also seen in the writings of his student Peter Abelard (1079-1142) who was the most influential language photosphere of his time. He wrote in his “Logia” (ca 1113-1123) that different designation of the same thing- by different languages- did not imply different meanings; men had only assigned a variety of sounds to the same thing. What people meant was everywhere the same, because meaning was a part of nature. Language was not God’s creation; the man of reason is master of his language and never ruled by it, Latin does not provide the basis or limit of human reason; like all knowledge it can be subject to improvement.[28]
A few Medieval writers placed even greater emphasis on the emphasis on the natural aspect pf language. Petrus Heliae, who taught grammar in Paris after 1140, suggested that there are ,ore systems of grammar as yet unknown and that all languages including the dialects can be systematically described and rationally understood [29]. A contemporary anonymous opusculum of he Bernardine Monastery of Ceteaux expressed the thought that language is the product of a natural law and attempted to substantiate this claim by the law of primacy for the letter a in all languages known [30]. But the most theories did not go that far. Abelard’s student John of Salisbury (ca 1115-1180), wrote in his “Metalogicon’ of 1160 that man received his reason and his ability to speak from the “natura clementissima parens ominum,’ but that names must have been invented by man. ( Language was given again being considered primarily in terms of names) [31]. This separation between a recognized natural language capacity and ,an-made language was maintained by most medieval authors including Petrus Hispanus (ca 1220-1227) who later became Pope John ⅩⅩⅠ, John de Dacia professor at Paris in 1280 and Thomas Aquians (1225-1274). Roger Bacon (ca 1214-1294) was to write in 1292 that differences between languages were based on physiological and climatic factors but proposed that language was the result of willful human invention [32].
According to Ricobald of Ferrara, the separation of language capacity and languages was supported by a miracle he observed in 1293. A deaf-mute acquired hearing and speech after praying at the grave of St. Anthony Padua; he could repeat what was said to him but did not understand the meaning of the words. This proved that the miracle could only establish the God-given physiological language ability but not the knowledge of a particular language which had to be learned [33].
Observes believed that there must a natural language, the direct expression of untutored language ability. Emperor Frederic Ⅱ (1192/3-1250) was seeking this natural language when he repeated Psametichos’ experiment which failed because the children died. William of Shyreswood (died 1267), an Englishman professor at the University of Paris, included the “signs of the sick” and “ natural sounds” in his definition of man’s language. The Dominican and later Archbishop of Caneterbury, Robert Kilwardby )died 1279) proclaimed that grammar should establish rules for language in general. The characteristics of any one language were as irrelevant to a science of grammar as the, material of the measuring rod or the physical characteristics of objects were to geometry [34]. The natural origin and basic similarity of all languages was also emphasized by a contemporary anonymous tractate, “ De modis significandi” and by Thomas of Erfurth at the end of the thirteenth centenary [35].
[24] Borst, A., Pp. 164, 178.
[25] ＿＿＿. Pp. 237,356.
[26] ＿＿＿. Pp. 392.
[27] ＿＿＿. Pp. 424,426,450.
[28] ＿＿＿. Pp..450,605,606,632,635
[29] ＿＿＿. Pp.636-7
[30] ＿＿＿. Pp.638
[31] ＿＿＿. Pp..640
[32] ＿＿＿. Pp..797-800,810 et seq., 901-902
[33] ＿＿＿. P.864
[34] ＿＿＿. Pp..756,796,799
[35] ＿＿＿. Pp..798,895
2. Definition
Impetus:促進;推動力;刺激
exegesis: 釋;註釋
statesman: 政治家
mourning:悲傷
designation: 指定;任命
opusculum: 小品;音樂小品;文學小品
Bernardine:西都修會的
Monastery: 男子的)修道院;僧院[C]
Stoic: 禁慾主義者; S-)斯多葛學派哲學家
Articulate: 1. 使成為系統的整體;使相互連貫 ; 2. 發音清晰的,可聽懂的
Interval: 戲劇,音樂會等的)幕間,休息時間
Schola: 1) An intermission of work, leisure for learning, learned conversation, debate, disputation, lecture, dissertation. 2) A meeting place for teachers and pupils, place for instruction, place of learning, school. 3)The disciples of a teacher, body of followers, school, sect. (--Elementary Latin Dictionary, OUP
Approximated reality: This painting approximates reality. ->这幅画逼真
Designation: 命名;稱號
Substantiate: 使實體化
[生物] typing LB378惠珍 Typing
LB378惠珍
《Biological Foundations of Language》Ch9: Toward a biological of language development
Assigned reading: Page 378
1. Typing
(11) The raw material from which the individual synthesizes building blocks for his own language development cannot be the cause of the developing structure as evidenced by the autochthonous beginnings in the infant’s language acquisition. Primitive stages of language are simply too different from adult language to be regarded as a direct mirroring of the input. Nor is there any evidence that the adults surrounding the child are the causative or shaping agents that determine language onset or his course of development ( see discussion of need as explanation in Chapter Four and of language teaching in Chapter Seven). Purposiveness cannot, logically, be the mainspring for language development.
(12) Social settings may be required as a trigger that sets off a reaction. Perhaps a better metaphor still is the concept of resonance. In a given state of maturation, exposure to adult language behavior has an excitatory effect upon the actualization process much the way a certain frequency begins to vibrate in the presence of the sound. In the case of language onset, the energy required for the resonance is, in a sense, supplied by the individual himself; if the trigger-analogy is preferred, we might say that he unwinds himself. The resonance analogy, on the other hand, illustrates more vividly how slight variations in the frequencies that impinge on the resonator affect the quality or nature of the resonance; it is comparable to the child’s hearing of French resulting in his speaking of French, each natural language being a sleeted frequency band from the limited possible frequency range that is capable of eliciting resonance. Once the critical period during which resonance may occur is outgrown, one language is firmly established, and exposure to new and different natural language is no longer resonated to.
Thus the propagation and maintenance of language behavior in the species are not comparable to cultural tradition which is handed down from generation to generation to generation. The individual does not serve as a passive vehicle or channel through which information is transmitted; instead, he is am autonomous unit constituted in very much the same way as other units around him, ready to behave in the same fashion as they do. His behavior is activated by social contact, and there is some superficial adaptation to the structure of their behavior, but it may be well to remember that he can only function if he can synthesize (recreate might be another word) the entire language mechanism out of the raw material available to him. The raw material is of no use unless it can be broken down as food proteins are broken down into amino-acids and build up again into the pattern of his in-dwelling latent structure. Thus, the individual is seen as functioning by virtue of his own power supply, so to speak; he constructs language by himself (provided ha has the raw material to do with it), and the natural history of his development provides for mechanism by which he will harmonize his function with that if other equally autonomously functioning individuals around him; the outer form of his language will have the outer form of the language of his native community.
(13) Even though biological constitution of the individual is a essential replica of its progenitors, there are , naturally, individual variations. In fact, there are two distinct levels that are relevant to language: in the formation of the latent structure and in the actualization process from latent to realized structure. The former may be due to variations in the maturational coursed; the latter is primary due to variations in peripheral function and structure such as the vocal tract or the ears. Variations on these two levels explain the main facts about language constancies, language change, and language universals.
2. Definition:
Actualization: 實施Resonator:共鳴器,共鳴體,共振器Excitatory:刺激的;興奮的Resonance:共振Un-wind:打開Impinge: 打、撞Band: (無線電的)波段,頻帶Out-grow: 長得比...快(或大、高)Propagation: 增殖,繁殖,廣傳Autonomous: 獨立
amino-acids: 氨基; 氨基的+酸
In-dwelling latent： Dwelling：生活的Latent：潛伏性的,隱藏的隱約的指印Progenitor: 祖先,先輩,原著
Replica: 複製品
LBT378惠珍
3.Translation
邏輯上來說，『有目的性』不可能是語言發展的主軸。
社會環境也许需要一種引信（觸發器）來引起反應。 或許，共鳴，仍然是一個比較好的引信的比喻。在實體化的過程中，在任何一個特定的成熟性狀態下，對於暴露在成人言语行为之中，仍是有一定的刺激、引發的作用在。其發生的頻率，就像，對於一些特別的共鳴器而言，在實體化的過程中，有些引發的作用。這種共鳴器，就是一種在聲音出現時，開始振動。
在語言開始的時候，就某個程度來說，是每個獨立的個體來提供所需的要震動的能量 ; 如果是採用『共振類比的』方式，我們就可以說：其實是這個個體『解開』這『引信』（能量）。從另一個角度來說，『共振類比』可以很明顯的顯示出：各種打在震動器的不同頻率，非常細微的震動，這種細微的震動，有可能會影響其震動器的品質，或是震動器本身。這種方式，也可用來解釋法國小孩的聽力影響說話的例子。每一種自然語言，都有一種可選擇的、有限的頻率，即『頻率波段』，在這個波段範圍內，就可以『引起』共振。但，曾經有段時間，是共振『過大的』，特別是結構很完整的語言，或是對於『沒有震動反應的』新奇而又不同的自然語言。
所以，在各物種之間， 語言行為的傳播和維護，是和世代相傳的文化不相容的。 人類並不是『被動的』資訊傳播的器具或是頻道; 反而是，獨立自主的單位，其組成的方式，就像其他身邊的『單位』一樣，會在同一種『流行趨勢』之下。 社會接觸影響著人類的行為，也有一些對於人類行為結構的『人為改變』，也許比較好的解說方式是：人類如可能從身邊緣使的材料中，『合成出』整個語言機制：即『重新創造出其他的字』。除非，這些『原始的材料』像蛋白質一樣能夠被分解成氨基酸，而且能再重新組成『潛在的生活樣子』，不然的話，這些原始的材料，是沒用的！所以，看來是可以這麼說：人類是依他自己的力量來運作語言，即：『自己建構語言』（假使有原始的材料提供給他的話）。人類語言的歷史發展，也提供了人類對於環境，自然運作的結果：人類的『外部語言形式』，對於本身的社群來說，是會造成其他的『外部形式』語言。
雖然，很自然的，人類的生物組成形式，有其基本複製先前祖先的能力， 意即：人類獨立無二的變化。
4. Related links
Resonance
Biological Naturalism
語言機制
浅说语言学在物理教学中的渗透
物理 wiki
《女科學家群像 系列》葉乃裳 揚名國際物理界
《Biological Foundations of Language》Ch9: Toward a biological of language development
Assigned reading: Page 378
1. Typing
(11) The raw material from which the individual synthesizes building blocks for his own language development cannot be the cause of the developing structure as evidenced by the autochthonous beginnings in the infant’s language acquisition. Primitive stages of language are simply too different from adult language to be regarded as a direct mirroring of the input. Nor is there any evidence that the adults surrounding the child are the causative or shaping agents that determine language onset or his course of development ( see discussion of need as explanation in Chapter Four and of language teaching in Chapter Seven). Purposiveness cannot, logically, be the mainspring for language development.
(12) Social settings may be required as a trigger that sets off a reaction. Perhaps a better metaphor still is the concept of resonance. In a given state of maturation, exposure to adult language behavior has an excitatory effect upon the actualization process much the way a certain frequency begins to vibrate in the presence of the sound. In the case of language onset, the energy required for the resonance is, in a sense, supplied by the individual himself; if the trigger-analogy is preferred, we might say that he unwinds himself. The resonance analogy, on the other hand, illustrates more vividly how slight variations in the frequencies that impinge on the resonator affect the quality or nature of the resonance; it is comparable to the child’s hearing of French resulting in his speaking of French, each natural language being a sleeted frequency band from the limited possible frequency range that is capable of eliciting resonance. Once the critical period during which resonance may occur is outgrown, one language is firmly established, and exposure to new and different natural language is no longer resonated to.
Thus the propagation and maintenance of language behavior in the species are not comparable to cultural tradition which is handed down from generation to generation to generation. The individual does not serve as a passive vehicle or channel through which information is transmitted; instead, he is am autonomous unit constituted in very much the same way as other units around him, ready to behave in the same fashion as they do. His behavior is activated by social contact, and there is some superficial adaptation to the structure of their behavior, but it may be well to remember that he can only function if he can synthesize (recreate might be another word) the entire language mechanism out of the raw material available to him. The raw material is of no use unless it can be broken down as food proteins are broken down into amino-acids and build up again into the pattern of his in-dwelling latent structure. Thus, the individual is seen as functioning by virtue of his own power supply, so to speak; he constructs language by himself (provided ha has the raw material to do with it), and the natural history of his development provides for mechanism by which he will harmonize his function with that if other equally autonomously functioning individuals around him; the outer form of his language will have the outer form of the language of his native community.
(13) Even though biological constitution of the individual is a essential replica of its progenitors, there are , naturally, individual variations. In fact, there are two distinct levels that are relevant to language: in the formation of the latent structure and in the actualization process from latent to realized structure. The former may be due to variations in the maturational coursed; the latter is primary due to variations in peripheral function and structure such as the vocal tract or the ears. Variations on these two levels explain the main facts about language constancies, language change, and language universals.
2. Definition:
Actualization: 實施Resonator:共鳴器,共鳴體,共振器Excitatory:刺激的;興奮的Resonance:共振Un-wind:打開Impinge: 打、撞Band: (無線電的)波段,頻帶Out-grow: 長得比...快(或大、高)Propagation: 增殖,繁殖,廣傳Autonomous: 獨立
amino-acids: 氨基; 氨基的+酸
In-dwelling latent： Dwelling：生活的Latent：潛伏性的,隱藏的隱約的指印Progenitor: 祖先,先輩,原著
Replica: 複製品
LBT378惠珍
3.Translation
邏輯上來說，『有目的性』不可能是語言發展的主軸。
社會環境也许需要一種引信（觸發器）來引起反應。 或許，共鳴，仍然是一個比較好的引信的比喻。在實體化的過程中，在任何一個特定的成熟性狀態下，對於暴露在成人言语行为之中，仍是有一定的刺激、引發的作用在。其發生的頻率，就像，對於一些特別的共鳴器而言，在實體化的過程中，有些引發的作用。這種共鳴器，就是一種在聲音出現時，開始振動。
在語言開始的時候，就某個程度來說，是每個獨立的個體來提供所需的要震動的能量 ; 如果是採用『共振類比的』方式，我們就可以說：其實是這個個體『解開』這『引信』（能量）。從另一個角度來說，『共振類比』可以很明顯的顯示出：各種打在震動器的不同頻率，非常細微的震動，這種細微的震動，有可能會影響其震動器的品質，或是震動器本身。這種方式，也可用來解釋法國小孩的聽力影響說話的例子。每一種自然語言，都有一種可選擇的、有限的頻率，即『頻率波段』，在這個波段範圍內，就可以『引起』共振。但，曾經有段時間，是共振『過大的』，特別是結構很完整的語言，或是對於『沒有震動反應的』新奇而又不同的自然語言。
所以，在各物種之間， 語言行為的傳播和維護，是和世代相傳的文化不相容的。 人類並不是『被動的』資訊傳播的器具或是頻道; 反而是，獨立自主的單位，其組成的方式，就像其他身邊的『單位』一樣，會在同一種『流行趨勢』之下。 社會接觸影響著人類的行為，也有一些對於人類行為結構的『人為改變』，也許比較好的解說方式是：人類如可能從身邊緣使的材料中，『合成出』整個語言機制：即『重新創造出其他的字』。除非，這些『原始的材料』像蛋白質一樣能夠被分解成氨基酸，而且能再重新組成『潛在的生活樣子』，不然的話，這些原始的材料，是沒用的！所以，看來是可以這麼說：人類是依他自己的力量來運作語言，即：『自己建構語言』（假使有原始的材料提供給他的話）。人類語言的歷史發展，也提供了人類對於環境，自然運作的結果：人類的『外部語言形式』，對於本身的社群來說，是會造成其他的『外部形式』語言。
雖然，很自然的，人類的生物組成形式，有其基本複製先前祖先的能力， 意即：人類獨立無二的變化。
4. Related links
Resonance
Biological Naturalism
語言機制
浅说语言学在物理教学中的渗透
物理 wiki
《女科學家群像 系列》葉乃裳 揚名國際物理界
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