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Pinyin
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Pinyin
Simplified Chinese:
拼音
[show]Transliterations
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin:
pīnyīn
Scheme of the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet
Traditional Chinese:
漢語拼音方案
Simplified Chinese:
汉语拼音方案
[show]Transliterations
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin:
Hàn yǔ pīnyīn fāng'àn
Chinese romanization
Mandarin for Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin (ISO standard) EFEO Gwoyeu Romatzyh Spelling conventions Latinxua Sin Wenz Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II Chinese Postal Map Romanization Tongyong Pinyin Wade-Giles Yale Legge romanization Simplified Wade Comparison chart
Cantonese for Standard Cantonese Guangdong Romanization Hong Kong Government Jyutping Meyer-Wempe Sidney Lau S. L. Wong (phonetic symbols) S. L. Wong (romanisation) Standard Cantonese Pinyin Standard Romanization Yale Barnett-Chao
Wu Long-short (romanization)
Min Nanfor Taiwanese, Amoy, and related Pe̍h-oē-jī Daighi tongiong pingimFor Hainanese Hainanhua Pinyin Fang'anFor Teochew Peng'im
Min Dong for Fuzhou dialect Foochow Romanized
Hakka for Moiyan dialect Kejiahua Pinyin Fang'anFor Siyen dialect Phak-fa-sṳ
See also: General Chinese (Chao Yuenren) Cyrillization Xiao'erjing Bopomofo Romanisation in Singapore Romanisation in the ROC
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This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.
Pinyin, or more formally Hanyu Pinyin, is the most commonly used Romanization system for Standard Mandarin. Hanyu means the Chinese language, and pinyin means "phonetics", or more literally, "spelling sound" or "spelled sound".[1] Developed by a government committee in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the system was initially approved by the Chinese government on February 11, 1958.[2] The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as the international standard in 1982,[3] and since then it has been adopted by many other organizations. Since January 1, 2009, it is also the official romanization system in Republic of China (ROC).[4][5] It is used to teach Chinese schoolchildren and foreign learners the standard pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese, to spell Chinese names in foreign publications and to enter Chinese characters (hanzi) on computers.
Contents[hide]
1 History
2 Usage
3 Overview
4 Initials and finals
4.1 Initials
4.2 Finals
5 Rules given in terms of English pronunciation
5.1 Pronunciation of initials
5.2 Pronunciation of finals
6 Orthography
6.1 Letters
6.2 Capitalization and word formation
7 Tones
7.1 Numerals in place of tone marks
7.2 Rules for placing the tone mark
8 The character "ü"
9 Comparison chart
10 Pinyin in Taiwan
11 Other languages
12 Comparison with other orthographies
13 Further reading
14 See also
15 References
16 Notes
//

[edit] History
In 1954, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China (PRC) created a Committee for the Reform of the Chinese Written Language. This committee developed Hanyu pinyin based upon several preexisting systems: (Gwoyeu Romatzyh of 1928, Latinxua Sin Wenz of 1931, and the diacritic markings from zhuyin).[6] The main force behind pinyin was Zhou Youguang.[7] Zhou was working in a New York bank when he decided to return to China to help rebuild the country after the Korean War. He became an economics professor in Shanghai and was assigned[8] to help the development of a new romanization system.
A first draft was published on February 12, 1956. The first edition of Hanyu pinyin was approved and adopted at the Fifth Session of the 1st National People's Congress on February 11, 1958. It was then introduced to primary schools as a way to teach Standard Mandarin pronunciation and used to improve the literacy rate among adults. In 2001, the Chinese Government issued the National Common Language Law, providing a legal basis for applying pinyin.[9]

[edit] Usage
Pinyin superseded older romanization systems such as Wade-Giles (1859; modified 1892) and Chinese Postal Map Romanization, and replaced zhuyin as the method of Chinese phonetic instruction in mainland China. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted pinyin as the standard romanization for modern Chinese in 1982 (ISO 7098:1982, superseded by ISO 7098:1991); the United Nations followed suit in 1986.[10] It has also been accepted by the government of Singapore, the United States' Library of Congress, the American Library Association, and many other international institutions.[11]
The spelling of Chinese geographical or personal names in pinyin has become the most common way to transcribe them in English. Pinyin has also become a useful tool for entering Chinese language text into computers.
Chinese speaking Standard Mandarin at home use pinyin to help children associate characters with spoken words which they already know; however, for the many Chinese who do not use Standard Mandarin at home, pinyin is used to teach them the Standard Mandarin pronunciation of words when they learn them in elementary school.
Pinyin has become a tool for many foreigners to learn the Mandarin pronunciation, and is used to explain the grammar and spoken Mandarin together with hanzi. Books containing both Chinese characters and pinyin are popular with foreign learners of Chinese; pinyin's role in teaching pronunciation to foreigners and children is similar in some respects to furigana-based books (with hiragana letters written above or next to kanji) in Japanese or fully vocalised texts in Arabic ("vocalised Arabic").

[edit] Overview
The correspondence between letter and sound does not follow any single other language, but does not depart any more from the norms of the Latin alphabet than many European languages. For example, the aspiration distinction between b, d, g and p, t, k is similar to that of English, but not to that of French. Z and c also have that distinction; however, they are pronounced as [ts], as in languages such as German, Italian, and Polish, which do not have that distinction. From s, z, c come the digraphs sh, zh, ch by analogy with English sh, ch. Although this introduces the novel combination zh, it is internally consistent in how the two series are related, and reminds the trained reader that many Chinese pronounce sh, zh, ch as s, z, c. In the x, j, q series, the Pinyin use of x is similar to its use in Catalan, Basque, and Portuguese; and the Pinyin q is akin to its value in Albanian, both Pinyin and Albanian pronunciations may sound similar to the ch to the untrained ear. Pinyin vowels are pronounced in a similar way to vowels in Romance languages. More information on the pronunciation of all pinyin letters in terms of English approximations is given further below.
The pronunciation and spelling of Chinese words are generally given in terms of initials and finals, which represent the segmental phonemic portion of the language, rather than letter by letter. Initials are initial consonants, while finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel), the nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant).

[edit] Initials and finals
Unlike in European languages, initials (simplified Chinese: 声母; traditional Chinese: 聲母; pinyin: shengmu) and finals (simplified Chinese: 韵母; traditional Chinese: 韻母; pinyin: yunmu, or rhyming sounds) - and not consonants and vowels - are the fundamental elements in pinyin (and most other phonetic systems used to describe the Han language). Nearly each Chinese syllable can be spelled with exactly one initial followed by one final, except in the special syllable 'er' and when a trailing 'r' is considered part of a syllable (see below). The latter case, though a common practice in some sub-dialects, is rarely used in official publications.[12]
Even though most initials contain a consonant, finals are not simple vowels, especially in compound finals (simplified Chinese: 复韵母; traditional Chinese: 複韻母; pinyin: fuyunmu), i.e., when one "final" is placed in front of another one. For example, [i] and [u] are pronounced with such tight openings that some native Chinese speakers (especially when singing or on stage) pronounce yī (Chinese: 衣, clothes, officially pronounced as /i/) as /ji/, wéi (simplified Chinese: 围; traditional Chinese: 圍, to enclose, officially as /uei/) as /wei/ or /wuei/. The concepts of consonants and vowels are not incorporated in pinyin or its predecessors, despite the fact that the Roman alphabets are used in pinyin. In the entire pinyin system, there is not a list of consonants, nor a list of vowels.

[edit] Initials
In each cell below, the first line indicates the IPA, the second indicates pinyin.
Bilabial
Labio-dental
Alveolar
Retroflex
Alveolo-palatal
Palatal
Velar
Plosive
[p]b
[pʰ]p
[t]d
[tʰ]t
[k]g
[kʰ]k
Nasal
[m]m
[n]n
Lateral approximant
[l]l
Affricate
[ts]z
[tsʰ]c
[ʈʂ]zh
[ʈʂʰ]ch
[tɕ]j
[tɕʰ]q
Fricative

[f]f
[s]s
[ʂ]sh
[ʐ] 1r
[ɕ]x
[x]h
Approximant



[ɻ] 1r
[j]2 or [ɥ]3y
[w]2w
1 /ɻ/ may phonetically be /ʐ/ (a voiced retroflex fricative). This pronunciation varies among different speakers, and is not two different phonemes.2 the letters "w" and "y" are not included in the table of initials in the official pinyin system. They are an orthographic convention for the medials "i", "u" and "ü" when no initial is present. When "i", "u" or "ü" are finals and no initial is present, they are spelled "yi", "wu", and "yu", respectively.3 "y" is pronounced as [ɥ] before "u".
Conventional order (excluding w and y), derived from the zhuyin system, is:
b p m f
d t n l
g k h
j q x
zh ch sh r
z c s

[edit] Finals
In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the second indicates pinyin for a standalone (no-initial) form, and the third indicates pinyin for a combination with an initial. Other than finals modified by an -r, which are omitted, the following is an exhaustive table of all possible finals. 1
The only syllable-final consonants in standard Mandarin are -n and -ng, and -r which is attached as a grammatical suffix. Chinese syllables ending with any other consonant is either from a non-Mandarin language (southern Chinese languages such as Cantonese, or minority languages of China), or it indicates the use of a non-pinyin Romanization system (where final consonants may be used to indicate tones).
Final
Medial
Nucleus
Coda
Ø
i
u
y
a
Ø
[ɑ]a-a
[i̯a]ya-ia
[u̯a]wa-ua
i
[aɪ̯]ai-ai
[u̯aɪ̯]wai-uai
u
[ɑʊ̯]ao-ao
[i̯ɑʊ̯]yao-iao
n
[an]an-an
[i̯ɛn]yan-ian
[u̯an]wan-uan
[y̯ɛn]yuan-üan 2
ŋ
[ɑŋ]ang-ang
[i̯ɑŋ]yang-iang
[u̯ɑŋ]wang-uang
ə
Ø
[ɤ]e-e
[i̯ɛ]ye-ie
[u̯ɔ]wo-uo/-o 3
[y̯œ]yue-üe 2
i
[eɪ̯]ei-ei
[u̯eɪ̯]wei-ui
u
[oʊ̯]ou-ou
[i̯oʊ̯]you-iu
n
[ən]en-en
[in]yin-in
[u̯ən]wen-un
[yn]yun-ün 2
ŋ
[əŋ]eng-eng
[iŋ]ying-ing
[u̯əŋ], [ʊŋ] 4weng-ong
[y̯ʊŋ]yong-iong
Ø
[z̩], [ʐ̩]-i
[i]yi-i
[u]wu-u
[y]yu-ü 2
1 /ər/ (而, 二, etc.) is written as er. For other finals formed by the suffix -r, pinyin does not use special orthography; one simply appends -r to the final that it is added to, without regard for any sound changes that may take place along the way. For information on sound changes related to final -r, please see Standard Mandarin.2 "ü" is written as "u" after j, q, x, or y.3 "uo" is written as "o" after b, p, m, or f.4 It is pronounced [ʊŋ] when it follows an initial, and pinyin reflects this difference.
Technically, i, u, ü without a following vowel are finals, not medials, and therefore take the tone marks, but they are more concisely displayed as above. In addition, ê [ɛ] and syllabic nasals like m are used as interjections.

[edit] Rules given in terms of English pronunciation
All rules given here in terms of English pronunciation are approximate, as several of these sounds do not correspond directly to sounds in English.

[edit] Pronunciation of initials
This section includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see Wikipedia Media help.
Pinyin
IPA
Explanation
b
[p]
unaspirated p, as in spit
p
[pʰ]
strongly aspirated p, as in pit
m
[m]
as in English mum
f
[f]
as in English fun
d
[t]
unaspirated t, as in stop
t
[tʰ]
strongly aspirated t, as in top
n
[n]
as in English nit
l
[l]
as in English love
g
[k]
unaspirated k, as in skill
k
[kʰ]
strongly aspirated k, as in kill
h
[x]
like the English h if followed by "a"; otherwise it is pronounced more roughly (like the Scots ch or Russian х (Cyrillic "kha")).
j
[tɕ]
like q, but unaspirated. Not unlike the j in jingle. Not the s in Asia, despite the common English pronunciation of "Beijing".
q
[tɕʰ]
like cheek, with the lips spread as when you say ee. Strongly aspirated.
x
[ɕ]
like she, with the lips spread as when you say ee. The sequence "xi" is like Japanese し shi.
zh
[ʈʂ]
ch with no aspiration (a sound between joke and church, tongue tip curled more upwards); very similar to merger in American English, but not voiced
ch
[ʈʂʰ]
as in chin, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to nurture in American English, but strongly aspirated
sh
[ʂ]
as in shoe, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to marsh in American English
r
[ʐ]
Similar to the English z in azure, but with the tongue curled upwards, like a cross between English "r" and French "j". In Cyrillised Chinese the sound is rendered with the letter "ж".
z
[ts]
unaspirated c (something between suds and cats)
c
[tsʰ]
like ts in bats, but strongly aspirated
s
[s]
as in sun
w
[w]
as in water.*
y
[j]
as in yes.*
’
[.]
new syllable*
* Note on w, y, and the apostrophe
Y and w are equivalent to the semivowel medials i, u, and ü (see below). They are spelled differently when there is no initial consonant in order to mark a new syllable: fanguan is fan-guan, while fangwan is fang-wan (and equivalent to *fang-uan). With this convention, an apostrophe only needs to be used to mark an initial a, e, or o: Xi'an (two syllables: [ɕi.an]) vs. xian (one syllable: [ɕi̯ɛn]). In addition, y and w are added to fully vocalic i, u, and ü when these occur without an initial consonant, so that they are written yi, wu, and yu. Some Mandarin speakers do pronounce a [j] or [w] sound at the beginning of such words—that is, yi [i] or [ji], wu [u] or [wu], yu [y] or [ɥy],—so this is an intuitive convention. See below for a few finals which are abbreviated after a consonant plus w/u or y/i medial: wen → C+un, wei → C+ui, weng → C+ong, and you → C+iu.

[edit] Pronunciation of finals
The following is an exhaustive list of all finals in Standard Mandarin. Those ending with a final -r are listed at the end.
To find a given final:
Remove the initial consonant. Zh, ch, and sh count as initial consonants.
Change initial w to u and initial y to i. For weng, wei, you, look under ong, ui, iu.
For u after j, q, x, or y, look under ü.
Pinyin
IPA
Form with zero initial
Explanation
-i
[z̩], [ʐ̩]
n/a
-i is a buzzed continuation of the consonant following z-, c-, s-, zh-, ch-, sh- or r-.
(In all other words, -i has the sound of bee; this is listed below.)
a
[ɑ]
a
as in "father"
o
[u̯ɔ]
o
starts with English "oo" and ends with a plain continental "o".
e
[ɤ], [ə]
e
a back, unrounded vowel, which can be formed by first pronouncing a plain continental "o" (AuE and NZE law) and then spreading the lips without changing the position of the tongue. That same sound is also similar to English "duh", but not as open. Many unstressed syllables in Chinese use the schwa (idea), and this is also written as e.
ê
[ɛ]
(n/a)
as in "bet". Only used in certain interjections.
ai
[aɪ̯]
ai
like English "eye", but a bit lighter
ei
[ei̯]
ei
as in "hey"
ao
[ɑʊ̯]
ao
approximately as in "cow"; the a is much more audible than the o
ou
[ou̯]
ou
as in "so"
an
[an]
an
starts with plain continental "a" (AuE and NZE bud) and ends with "n"
en
[ən]
en
as in "taken"
ang
[ɑŋ]
ang
as in German Angst, including the English loan word angst (starts with the vowel sound in father and ends in the velar nasal; like song in American English)
eng
[ɤŋ]
eng
like e above but with ng added to it at the back
ong
[ʊŋ]
weng
starts with the vowel sound in book and ends with the velar nasal sound in sing
er
[ɑɻ]
er
as in "butter"
Finals beginning with i- (y-)
i
[i]
yi
like English bee.
ia
[i̯ɑ]
ya
as i + a; like English "yard"
io
[i̯ɔ]
yo
as i + plain continental "o". Only used in certain interjections.
ie
[i̯ɛ]
ye
as i + ê; but is very short; e (pronounced like ê) is pronounced longer and carries the main stress (similar to the initial sound ye in yet)
iao
[iɑʊ]
yao
as i + ao
iu
[i̯ou̯]
you
as i + ou
ian
[i̯ɛn]
yan
as i + ê + n; like English yen
in
[in]
yin
as i + n
iang
[i̯ɑŋ]
yang
as i + ang
ing
[iŋ]
ying
as i but with ng added to it at the back
iong
[i̯ʊŋ]
yong
as yu + ong
Finals beginning with u- (w-)
u
[u]
wu
like English "oo"; pronounced as ü [y] after j, q, x and y
ua
[u̯a]
wa
as u + a
uo
[u̯ɔ]
wo
as u + o; the o is pronounced shorter and lighter than in the o final
uai
[u̯aɪ̯]
wai
as u + ai
ui
[u̯ei̯]
wei
as u + ei; here, the i is pronounced like ei
uan
[u̯an]
wan
as u + an; pronounced as üan [yɛn] after j, q, x and y
un
[u̯ən]
wen
as u + en; like the on in the English won; pronounced as ün [yn] after j, q, x and y
uang
[u̯ɑŋ]
wang
as u + ang; like the ang in English angst or anger
ong
[u̯ɤŋ]
weng
as u + eng
Finals beginning with ü- (yu-)
u, ü
[y]
yu
as in German "üben" or French "lune" (To get this sound, say "ee" with rounded lips)
ue, üe
[y̯ɛ]
yue
as ü + ê; the ü is short and light
uan
[y̯ɛn]
yuan
as ü + ê+ n;
un, ün
[yn]
yun
as ü + n;

[edit] Orthography

[edit] Letters
Pinyin differs from other romanizations in several aspects, such as the following:
Syllables starting with u are written as w in place of u (e.g. ueng is written as weng). Standalone u is written as wu.
Syllables starting with i are written as y in place of i (e.g. iou is written as you). Standalone i is written as yi.
Syllables starting with ü are written as yu in place of ü (e.g. üe is written as yue).
ü is written as u when there is no ambiguity (such as ju, qu, and xu), but written as ü when there are corresponding u syllables (such as lü and nü). In such situations where there are corresponding u syllables, it is often replaced with v on a computer, making it easier to type on a standard keyboard.
When preceded by a consonant, iou, uei, and uen are simplified as iu, ui, and un (which do not represent the actual pronunciation).
As in zhuyin, what are actually pronounced as buo, puo, muo, and fuo are given a separate representation: bo, po, mo, and fo.
The apostrophe (') is often used before a, o, and e to separate syllables in a word where ambiguity could arise, especially when omitting tone marks, e.g., pi'ao (simplified Chinese: 皮袄; traditional Chinese: 皮襖) vs. piao (票), and Xi'an (西安) vs. xian (先).
Eh alone is written as ê; elsewhere as e. Schwa is always written as e.
zh, ch, and sh can be abbreviated as ẑ, ĉ, and ŝ (z, c, s with a circumflex). However, the shorthands are rarely used due to difficulty of entering them on computers.
ng has the uncommon shorthand of ŋ.
The letter v is unused （except in spelling foreign languages, languages of minority nationalities, and some dialects), despite a conscious effort to distribute letters more evenly than in Western languages. However, sometimes, for ease of typing into a computer, the v is used to replace a ü.
Most of the above are used to avoid ambiguity when writing words of more than one syllable in pinyin. For example uenian is written as wenyan because it is not clear which syllables make up uenian; uen-ian, uen-i-an and u-en-i-an are all possible combinations whereas wenyan is unambiguous because we, nya, etc. do not exist in pinyin. See the pinyin table article for a summary of possible pinyin syllables (not including tones).

[edit] Capitalization and word formation
General
Single meaning: Words with a single meaning, which are usually set up of two characters (sometimes one, seldom three), are written together and not capitalized: rén (Chinese: 人, person); péngyou (Chinese: 朋友, friend), qiǎokèlì (Chinese: 巧克力, chocolate)
Combined meaning (2 characters): Same goes for words combined of two words to one meaning: hǎifēng (simplified Chinese: 海风; traditional Chinese: 海風, sea breeze); wèndá (simplified Chinese: 问答; traditional Chinese: 問答, Q&A), quánguó (simplified Chinese: 全国; traditional Chinese: 全國, 'pan-national')
Combined meaning (4 or more characters): Words with four or more characters having one meaning are split up with their original meaning if possible: wúfèng gāngguǎn (simplified Chinese: 无缝钢管; traditional Chinese: 無縫鋼管, seamless steel-tube); huánjìng bǎohù guīhuà (simplified Chinese: 环境保护规划; traditional Chinese: 環境保護規劃, environmental protection planning)
Duplicated words
AA: Duplicated characters (AA) are written together: rénrén (Chinese: 人人, everybody), kànkàn (Chinese: 看看, to have a look), niánnián (Chinese: 年年, every year)
ABAB: two characters duplicated (ABAB) are written separated: yánjiū yánjiū (Chinese: 研究研究, to study, to research), xuěbái xuěbái (Chinese: 雪白雪白, snow-white)
AABB: A hyphen is used with the schema AABB: láilái-wǎngwǎng (simplified Chinese: 来来往往; traditional Chinese: 來來往往, go back and forth), qiānqiān-wànwàn (simplified Chinese: 千千万万; traditional Chinese: 千千萬萬, numerous)
Nouns and names (míngcí): Nouns are written in one: zhuōzi (Chinese: , table), mùtou (simplified Chinese: 木头; traditional Chinese: 木頭, wood)
Even if accompanied by a prefix and suffix: fùbùzhǎng (simplified Chinese: 副部长; traditional Chinese: 副部長, vice minister), chéngwùyuán (simplified Chinese: 乘务员; traditional Chinese: 乘務員, conductor), háizimen (simplified Chinese: 孩子们; traditional Chinese: 孩子們, children)
Words of position are separated: mén wài (outdoor), hé li (in the river), huǒchē shàngmian (on the train), Huáng Hé yǐnán (south of the Yellow River)
Exceptions are words traditionally connected: tiānshang (in the sky), dìxia (on the ground), kōngzhōng (in the air), hǎiwài (overseas)
Surnames are separated from the given name: Lǐ Huá, Zhāng Sān. If the given name consists of two syllables, it should be written as one: Wáng Jiàngguó.
Titles following the name are separated and are not capitalized: Wáng bùzhǎng (minister Wang), Lǐ xiānsheng (Mr. Li), Tián zhǔrèn (director Tian), Zhào tóngzhì (comrade Zhao).
The forms of addressing people with Lǎo, Xiǎo, Dà and A are capitalized: Xiǎo Liú ([young] Ms. Liu), Dà Lǐ ([great] Mr. Li), A Sān (Ah San), Lǎo Qián ([senior] Mr. Qian), Lǎo Wú ([senior] Ms. Wu)
Exceptions are: Kǒngzǐ (Master Confucius), Bāogōng (Judge Bao), Xīshī (a historical person), Mèngchángjūn (a historical person)
Geographical names of China: Běijīng Shì (City of Beijing), Héběi Shěng (Province of Hebei), Yālù Jiāng (Yalu River), Tài Shān (Mt. Taishan), Dòngtíng Hú (Lake Donting), Táiwān Hǎixiá (Taiwan strait)
Non-Chinese names translated back from Chinese will be written by their original writing: Marx, Einstein, London, Tokyo
Verbs (dòngcí): Verbs and their suffixes (-zhe, -le and -guo) are written as one: kànzhe/kànle/kànguo (to see/saw/seen), jìngxíngzhe (to implement). Le as it appears in the end of a sentence is separated though: Huǒchē dào le (The train [has] arrived).
Verbs and their objects are separated: kàn xìn (read a letter), chī yú (eat fish), kāi wánxiào (to be kidding).
If verbs and their complements are each monosyllabic, they are written together, if not, separated: gǎohuài ("to make broken"), dǎsǐ (hit to death), huàwéi ("to become damp"), zhěnglǐ hǎo (to straighten out), gǎixiě wéi (rewrite a screenplay)
Adjectives (xíngróngcí): A monosyllabic adjective and its reduplication are written as one: mēngmēngliàng (dim), liàngtāngtāng (shining bright)
Complements of size or degree (as xiē, yīxiē, diǎnr, yīdiǎnr) are written separated: dà xiē (a little bigger), kuài yīdiānr (a bit faster)
Pronouns (dàicí)
The plural suffix -men directly follows up: wǒmen (we), tāmen (they)
The demonstrative pronoun zhè (this), nà (that) and the question pronoun nǎ (which) are separated: zhè rén (this person), nà cì huìyì (that meeting), nǎ zhāng bàozhǐ (which newspaper)
Exceptions are: nàli (there), zhèbian (over here), zhège (this piece), zhème (so), zhèmeyàng (that way)... and similar ones.
Numerals and measure words (shùcí hé liàngcí)
Words like gè/měi (every, each), mǒu (any), běn (that), gāi (that), wǒ (mine, our), are separated from the measure words following them: gè guó (every nation), gè gè (everyone), měi nián (every year), mǒu gōngchǎng (a certain factory), wǒ xiào (our school).

[edit] Tones

Relative pitch changes of the four tones
The pinyin system also uses diacritics to mark the four tones of Mandarin. The diacritic is placed over the letter that represents the syllable nucleus, unless that letter is missing (see below). Many books printed in China use a mix of fonts, with vowels and tone marks rendered in a different font than the surrounding text, tending to give such pinyin texts a typographically ungainly appearance. This style, most likely rooted in early technical limitations, has led many to believe that pinyin's rules call for this practice and also for the use of a Latin alpha ("ɑ") rather than the standard style of the letter ("a") found in most fonts. The official rules of Hanyu Pinyin, however, specify no such practice.
The first tone (Flat or High Level Tone) is represented by a macron (ˉ) added to the pinyin vowel:
ā (ɑ̄) ē ī ō ū ǖ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū Ǖ
The second tone (Rising or High-Rising Tone) is denoted by an acute accent (ˊ):
á (ɑ́) é í ó ú ǘ Á É Í Ó Ú Ǘ
The third tone (Falling-Rising or Low Tone) is marked by a caron/háček (ˇ). It is not the rounded breve (˘), though a breve is sometimes substituted due to font limitations.
ǎ (ɑ̌) ě ǐ ǒ ǔ ǚ Ǎ Ě Ǐ Ǒ Ǔ Ǚ
The fourth tone (Falling or High-Falling Tone) is represented by a grave accent (ˋ):
à (ɑ̀) è ì ò ù ǜ À È Ì Ò Ù Ǜ
The fifth tone (Neutral Tone) is represented by a normal vowel without any accent mark:
a (ɑ) e i o u ü A E I O U Ü
(In some cases, this is also written with a dot before the syllable; for example, ·ma.)
These tone marks normally are only used in Mandarin textbooks or in foreign learning texts, but they are essential for correct pronunciation of Mandarin syllables, as exemplified by the following classic example of five characters whose pronunciations differ only in their tones:
Traditional characters:
媽(mā) 麻(má) 馬(mǎ) 罵(mà) 嗎(·ma)
Simplified characters:
妈(mā) 麻(má) 马(mǎ) 骂(mà) 吗(·ma)

mā má mǎ mà
A sound sample of the four tones
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
The words are "mother", "hemp", "horse", "scold" and a question particle, respectively.

[edit] Numerals in place of tone marks
Before the advent of computers, many typewriter fonts did not contain vowels with macron or caron diacritics. Tones were thus represented by placing a tone number at the end of individual syllables. For example, tóng is written tong2. The number used for each tone is as the order listed above, except the neutral tone, which is either not numbered, or given the number 0 or 5, e.g. ma5 for 吗/嗎, an interrogative marker.
Tone
Tone Mark
Number added to end of syllablein place of tone mark
Example usingtone mark
Example usingnumber
IPA
First
macron ( ˉ )
1
mā
ma1
mɑ˥˥
Second
acute accent ( ˊ )
2
má
ma2
mɑ˧˥
Third
caron ( ˇ )
3
mǎ
ma3
mɑ˨˩˦
Fourth
grave accent ( ˋ )
4
mà
ma4
mɑ˥˩
"Neutral"
No markor dot before syllable (·)
no number50
ma·ma
mama5ma0
mɑ

[edit] Rules for placing the tone mark
Pinyin tone marks appear primarily above the nucleus of the syllable, for example as in kuài, where k is the initial, u the medial, a the nucleus, and i the coda. The exception is syllabic nasals like m, where the nucleus of the syllable is a consonant, the diacritic will be carried by a vowel.
When the nucleus is /ə/ (written e or o), and there is both a medial and a coda, the nucleus may be dropped from writing. When the coda is a consonant n or ng, the only vowel left is the medial i, u, or ü, and so this takes the diacritic. However, when the coda is a vowel, it is the coda rather than the medial which takes the diacritic. This occurs with syllables ending in -ui, from wei, and in -iu, from you (wèi → -uì; yòu → -iù). That is, finals have priority, as long as they are vowels: if not, the medial takes the diacritic.
An algorithm to find the correct vowel letter (when there is more than one) is as follows:[13]
If there is an "a" or an "e", it will take the tone mark.
If there is an "ou", then the "o" takes the tone mark.
Otherwise, the second vowel takes the tone mark.
Worded differently,
If there is an "a", "e", or "o", it will take the tone mark; in the case of "ao", the mark goes on the "a".
Otherwise, the vowels are "-iu" or "-ui", in which case the second vowel takes the tone mark.
If the tone is written over an i, the dot above the i is omitted, as in yī.

[edit] The character "ü"
An umlaut is placed over the letter u when it occurs after the initials l and n in order to represent the sound [y]. This is necessary in order to distinguish the front high rounded vowel in lü (e.g. 驴/驢 donkey) from the back high rounded vowel in lu (e.g. 炉/爐 oven). Tonal markers are added on top of the trema, as in lǘ.
However, the ü is not used in other contexts where it represents a front high rounded vowel, namely after the letters j, q, x and y. For example, the sound of the word 鱼/魚 (fish) is transcribed in pinyin simply as yú, not as yǘ. This practice is opposed to Wade-Giles, which always uses ü, and Tongyong pinyin, which always uses yu. Whereas Wade-Giles needs to use the trema to distinguish between chü (pinyin ju) and chu (pinyin zhu), this ambiguity cannot arise with pinyin, so the more convenient form ju is used instead of jü. Genuine ambiguities only happen with nu/nü and lu/lü, which are then distinguished by a trema (diacritic).
Many fonts or output methods do not support a trema for ü or cannot place tone marks on top of ü. Likewise, using ü in input methods is difficult because it is not present as a simple key on many keyboard layouts. For these reasons v is sometimes used instead by convention. Occasionally, uu (double u), u: (u followed by a colon) or U (capital u) is used in its place.
Although nüe written in nue, and lüe written in lue won't be confusing, nue or lue is not correct according the rules. You should use nüe and lüe. However, some Chinese input method (e.g. Microsoft Pinyin IME) both support nve/lve(here v is for ü) and nue/lue.

[edit] Comparison chart
Vowels a, e, o, i
IPA
ɑ
ɔ
ɤ
aɪ
eɪ
ɑʊ
ɤʊ
an
ən
ɑŋ
ɤŋ
ɑɻ
ʊŋ
i
iɛ
iɤʊ
iɛn
ɪn
ɪŋ
Pinyin
a
o
e
ai
ei
ao
ou
an
en
ang
eng
er
ong
yi
ye
you
yan
yin
ying
Tongyong Pinyin
a
o
e
ai
ei
ao
ou
an
en
ang
eng
er
ong
yi
ye
you
yan
yin
ying
Wade-Giles
a
o
o/ê
ai
ei
ao
ou
an
ên
ang
êng
êrh
ung
i
yeh
yu
yen
yin
ying
Zhuyin
ㄚ
ㄛ
ㄜ
ㄞ
ㄟ
ㄠ
ㄡ
ㄢ
ㄣ
ㄤ
ㄥ
ㄦ
ㄨㄥ
ㄧ
ㄧㄝ
ㄧㄡ
ㄧㄢ
ㄧㄣ
ㄧㄥ
example
阿
哦
俄
艾
黑
凹
偶
安
恩
昂
冷
二
中
一
也
又
言
音
英
Vowels u, y
IPA
u
uɔ
ueɪ
uaɪ
uan
uən
uʊn
uɤŋ
uʊŋ
y
yɛ
yɛn
yn
iʊŋ
Pinyin
wu
wo
wei
wai
wan
wen
weng
yu
yue
yuan
yun
yong
Tongyong Pinyin
wu
wo
wei
wai
wan
wun
wong
yu
yue
yuan
yun
yong
Wade-Giles
wu
wo
wei
wai
wan
wên
wêng
yü
yüeh
yüan
yün
yung
Zhuyin
ㄨ
ㄨㄛ
ㄨㄟ
ㄨㄞ
ㄨㄢ
ㄨㄣ
ㄨㄥ
ㄩ
ㄩㄝ
ㄩㄢ
ㄩㄣ
ㄩㄥ
example
五
我
位
外
完
文
翁
玉
月
元
云
用
Non-sibilant consonants
IPA
p
pʰ
m
fəŋ
fʊŋ
tiou
tuei
tʰ
ny
ly
kəɻ
kʰ
xə
Pinyin
b
p
m
feng
diu
dui
t
nü
lü
ger
k
he
Tongyong Pinyin
b
p
m
fong
diou
duei
t
nyu
lyu
ger
k
he
Wade-Giles
p
p'
m
fêng
tiu
tui
t'
nü
lü
kêrh
k'
ho
Zhuyin
ㄅ
ㄆ
ㄇ
ㄈㄥ
ㄉㄧㄡ
ㄉㄨㄟ
ㄊ
ㄋㄩ
ㄌㄩ
ㄍㄜㄦ
ㄎ
ㄏㄜ
example
玻
婆
末
封
丟
兌
特
女
旅
歌儿
可
何
Sibilant consonants
IPA
tɕiɛn
tɕyʊŋ
tɕʰɪn
ɕyɛn
ʈʂə
ʈʂɚ
ʈʂʰə
ʈʂʰɚ
ʂə
ʂɚ
ʐə
ʐɚ
tsə
tsuɔ
tsɨ
tsʰə
tsʰɨ
sə
sɨ
Pinyin
jian
jiong
qin
xuan
zhe
zhi
che
chi
she
shi
re
ri
ze
zuo
zi
ce
ci
se
si
Tongyong Pinyin
jian
jyong
cin
syuan
jhe
jhih
che
chih
she
shih
re
rih
ze
zuo
zih
ce
cih
se
sih
Wade-Giles
chien
chiung
ch'in
hsüan
chê
chih
ch'ê
ch'ih
shê
shih
jê
jih
tsê
tso
tzŭ
ts'ê
tz'ŭ
sê
szŭ
Zhuyin
ㄐㄧㄢ
ㄐㄩㄥ
ㄑㄧㄣ
ㄒㄩㄢ
ㄓㄜ
ㄓ
ㄔㄜ
ㄔ
ㄕㄜ
ㄕ
ㄖㄜ
ㄖ
ㄗㄜ
ㄗㄨㄛ
ㄗ
ㄘㄜ
ㄘ
ㄙㄜ
ㄙ
example
件
窘
秦
宣
哲
之
扯
赤
社
是
惹
日
仄
左
字
策
次
色
斯
Tones
IPA
ma˥˥
ma˧˥
ma˨˩˦
ma˥˩
ma
Pinyin
mā
má
mǎ
mà
ma
Tongyong Pinyin
ma
má
mǎ
mà
må
Wade-Giles
ma1
ma2
ma3
ma4
ma0
Zhuyin
ㄇㄚ
ㄇㄚˊ
ㄇㄚˇ
ㄇㄚˋ
ㄇㄚ・
example (traditional/simplfied)
媽/妈
麻/麻
馬/马
罵/骂
嗎/吗

[edit] Pinyin in Taiwan
Taiwan (Republic of China) adopted Tongyong pinyin, a modification of Hanyu pinyin, as the official romanization system on the national level between October 2002 and January 2009, when it switched to Hanyu pinyin. The romanization system in use became a political issue, much of it centered on issues of national identity, with proponents of Chinese reunification favoring Hanyu pinyin, the official romanization system used in the People's Republic of China as well as internationally, and proponents of Taiwanese independence favoring the use of the locally developed Tongyong pinyin.[citation needed]
The adoption of Tongyong pinyin was an administrative order that could be overruled by local governments. Some localities with governments controlled by the Kuomintang (KMT), most notably Taipei, Hsinchu, and Kinmen County, overrode the order and converted to Hanyu pinyin before the January 1, 2009 national-level switch,[4][5] though with a slightly different capitalization convention than mainland China. As a result, the use of romanization on signage in Taiwan was, and still is, inconsistent, with many places using Tongyong pinyin but some using Hanyu pinyin, and still others not yet having had the resources to replace older Wade-Giles or MPS2 signage. This has led to odd situations: for instance, in Taipei there were inconsistent romanizations shown in freeway directions: freeway signs, under the control of the central government, used Tongyong, while surface street signs, under the control of the city government, used, and still use, Hanyu Pinyin.[citation needed]
Primary education in Taiwan continues to teach pronunciation using zhuyin annotation. Although the ROC government has stated the desire to use romanization rather than zhuyin in education, the lack of agreement on which form of pinyin to use and the huge logistical challenge of teacher training has stalled these efforts.[citation needed]

[edit] Other languages
Pinyin-like systems have been devised for other variants of Chinese. Guangdong Romanization is a set of romanizations devised by the government of Guangdong province for Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka (Moiyen dialect), and Hainanese. All of these are designed to use Latin letters in a similar way to pinyin.
In addition, in accordance to the Regulation of Phonetic Transcription in Hanyu Pinyin Letters of Place Names in Minority Nationality Languages (少数民族语地名汉语拼音字母音译转写法) promulgated in 1976, place names in non-Chinese languages like Mongol, Uyghur, and Tibetan are also officially transcribed using pinyin. The pinyin letters (26 Roman letters, ü, ê) are used to approximate the non-Chinese language in question as closely as possible. This results in spellings that are different from both the customary spelling of the place name, and the pinyin spelling of the name in Chinese:
Customary
Official (pinyin for local name)
Chinese name
Pinyin for Chinese name
Shigatse
Xigazê
日喀则
Rìkāzé
Urumchi
Ürümqi
乌鲁木齐
Wūlǔmùqí
Lhasa
Lhasa
拉萨
Lāsà
Golmud
Golmud
格尔木
Gé'ěrmù
See also: Tibetan pinyin

[edit] Comparison with other orthographies
Pinyin is now used by foreign students learning Chinese as a second language.
Pinyin assigns some Roman letters phonological values which are quite different from that of most languages.
Pinyin is purely a representation of the sounds of Mandarin, therefore it lacks the semantic cues that Chinese characters can provide. It is also unsuitable for transcribing some Chinese spoken languages other than Mandarin.
Simple computer systems, able only to display only 7-bit ASCII text (essentially the 26 Latin letters, 10 digits and punctuation marks), long provided a convincing argument in favor of pinyin over hanzi. Today, however, most computer systems are able to display characters from Chinese and many other writing systems as well, and have them entered with a Latin keyboard using an input method editor. Alternatively, some PDAs, tablet PCs and digitizing tablets allow users to input characters directly by writing with a stylus.

[edit] Further reading
Gao, J. K. (2005). Pinyin shorthand: a bilingual handbook = [Pinyin su ji fa]. Dallas, TX: Jack Sun. ISBN 1599712512
Kimball, R. L. (1988). Quick reference Chinese: a practical guide to Mandarin for beginners and travelers in English, Pinyin romanization, and Chinese characters. San Francisco, CA: China Books & Periodicals. ISBN 0835120368
Wu, C.-j. (1979). The Pinyin Chinese-English dictionary. Hong Kong: Commercial Press. ISBN 0471275573

[edit] See also
Chinese Postal Map Romanization
Combining diacritic marks
Legge romanization
List of ISO transliterations
Pinyin table
Tibetan pinyin
Tongyong pinyin
Pinyin method
Erhua (儿化)

[edit] References
Yin Binyong 尹斌庸 and Mary Felley (1990). Chinese Romanization. Pronunciation and Orthography (Hanyu pinyin he zhengcifa 汉语拼音和正词法). Beijing: Sinolingua. ISBN 7-80052-148-6 / ISBN 0-8351-1930-0.

[edit] Notes
^ Harbaugh, Richard (1998). "中文字普 (Chinese Characters: A Genealogy and Dictionary)". Zhongwen.com. http://zhongwen.com/d/186/x126.htm. Retrieved on 2008-04-27.
^ "Pinyin celebrates 50th birthday". Xinhua News Agency. 2008-02-11. http://www.china.org.cn/english/news/242463.htm. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.
^ "ISO 7098:1982 - Documentation -- Romanization of Chinese". http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=13682. Retrieved on 2009-03-01.
^ a b "Hanyu Pinyin to be standard system in 2009". Taipei Times. 2008-09-18. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/09/18/2003423528. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.
^ a b "Gov't to improve English-friendly environment". The China Post. 2008-09-18. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national%20news/2008/09/18/175155/Gov%27t-to.htm. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.
^ Zou Minglang and Sun Hongkai, Language Policy In The People's Republic Of China: Theory And Practice Since 1949, 2004, p. 23
^ Branigan, Tania (2008-02-21). "Sound Principles". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/21/china. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.
^ Branigan, Tania (2008-02-21). "Sound Principles". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/21/china. Retrieved on 2008-09-20. indicates, "It soon became clear that his economic expertise was not required or appreciated. But in 1955 the government asked him to put his hobby - languages - to use by overseeing reforms. It believed only an explosion in literacy could allow China to develop."
^ "Hanyu Pinyin system turns 50". Straits Times. 2008-02-11. http://www.asiaone.com/News/The%2BStraits%2BTimes/Story/A1Story20080211-48960.html. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.
^ Lin Mei-chun (2000-10-08). "Official challenges Romanization". Taipei Times. http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/local/archives/2000/10/08/56460.
^ Ao, Benjamin (1997-12-01). "History and Prospect of Chinese Romanization". Chinese Librarianship: an International Electronic Journal (Internet Chinese Librarians Club) (4). ISSN 1089-4667. http://www.white-clouds.com/iclc/cliej/cl4ao.htm. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.
^ One exception is the city Harbin (simplified Chinese: 哈尔滨; traditional Chinese: 哈爾濱), which is from the Manchu language.
^ Swofford, Mark. "Where do the tone marks go?". Pinyin.info. http://www.pinyin.info/rules/where.html. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.
Preceded byGwoyeu Romatzyh
Official romanization adoptedby the People's Republic of China1958-
Succeeded bycurrent
Preceded byTongyong Pinyin
Official romanization adoptedby the Republic of China (Taiwan)2009-
Succeeded bycurrent
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"
Categories: ISO standards Chinese romanization Phonetic alphabets Mandarin words and phrases Phonetic guides

Merge and acquistion in Taiwan insurance company

1. 4/23 全球人壽 30億賣了

2. 4/27 富邦人壽併安泰人壽案 過關

buy and sell

why buy it?
why sell it?

Amazing Father and Son

請向這位偉大的父親致意
也分享給大家
The father says "yes". And they run their first marathon together. 有一天，兒子問爸爸：「爸爸你和我ㄧ起去跑馬拉松，好嗎？」 爸爸說好。 Another time, the son asks his dad again "Daddy, would you like to run a marathon with me? "The father says "yes son". 第二次，兒子又問爸爸：「爸爸你和我ㄧ起去跑馬拉松，好嗎？」 爸爸又說好。 One day, the son asks his father "Daddy, would you run the Ironman with me?" The Ironman is the most difficult triathlon ever (4 kms swimming, 180 kms bikin, 42 km running?) 有一天，兒子問爸爸：「爸爸和我ㄧ起去參加鐵人競賽，好嗎？」 鐵人競賽是最困難的比賽，必須游泳 四公里、腳踏車180公里、跑步42公里。 And the dad says "yes". 爸爸說好，我們去參加。 The story looks simple until you watch the following clip. Just amazing, how much can love be.... ? 以上故事看起來很簡單，請點選以下連結，觀賞影片，你將會了解愛的偉大！
我用感動的淚水向這位父親致意，也分享給大家

(ever since I get my knees hurt,I fell like I am a "hopeless" handicapped.

Burden to my family.And I did get the message from my friends and families as well.

I don't know:LOVE can conquer all.

How many times I dream about going back to hiking!!
(To Lala Mount, to see the scared tree)

While, my brother is reluctant to take me there,
my friends who are married ignore me,I am the one, who is being “abandon”...

Only if I get my knees recovery, I can take control of my life.

Only in Toastmasters, I get support, and respect.

Well, the next amazing Father and daughter for me!)

首度超越牙病 健保前5大門診 洗腎躍居榜首

quotation from http://news.msn.com.tw/news1260272.aspx
更新日期:2009/04/25 03:22
中央健保局廿四日公布前廿大門診疾病排行榜，洗腎、牙科、感冒、高血壓、糖尿病為前五大，一年花費逾一千三百億元，占健保總支出近三分之一。其中洗腎首度超越牙病，僅門診就花掉三三八億居榜首，台灣已成了名符其實的「洗腎王國」。
根據健保局統計去年門診前廿大疾病依序是洗腎、牙齒相關疾病、急性上呼吸道感染、高血壓(無併發症)、糖尿病（無併發症）、椎間盤突出或下背痛、糖尿病有併發症、高血壓有併發症、肌肉軟組織病、冠狀動脈心臟病、上呼吸道疾病、挫創傷、情感性精神病、急性支氣管炎、退化性關節炎、乳癌、過敏、扭傷拉傷、精神分裂症、白內障。
彙整相關疾病分類，洗腎花錢最多，去年共支付了三三八億在洗腎門診，較前一年成長八．七一％。其次牙科三三七億、呼吸道等感冒疾病二九○億、高血壓一九二億、糖尿病一五三億。
健保局副總經理李丞華指出，牙科相關疾病一直是第一名，今年慢性腎臟病首度成為國人第一大疾病。主因是國內洗腎技術好，病患存活長，加上人口老化，洗腎人口持續成長，費用也跟著上升。
台灣洗腎人口逐年成長，從九十六年的五六○九○人，成長到去年的五八七二六人，每位洗腎病患，一周洗三次，一年約花費六十萬元。
由於洗腎商機大，全民監督健保聯盟發言人滕西華建議，病患洗腎前應多聽其他醫療建議，例如香港非常鼓勵腹膜透析，台灣仍以血液透析，醫界也有必要檢討病人是否有提早洗腎之嫌。
此外，乳癌及高血壓、糖尿病等慢性疾病就醫次數成長率均上升快速。
李丞華表示，乳癌病患門診費用成長率高達十四％，是廿大疾病中升幅最大，顯示乳癌有年輕化的警訊。
本則新聞由中時電子報提供 2009/04/25

[華教] 汉语语法 from wiki

quotation from:http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95
汉语语法
维基百科，自由的百科全书
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此条目没有列出任何参考或来源。（2009年3月27日）请协助添加来自可靠来源的引用以改善这篇条目。无法查证的内容可能被提出异议而移除。
標準汉语语法中最大的特点是没有严格意义的形态变化。名词没有格的变化，也没有性和数的区别。动词不分人称，也没有时态。这一不同于欧洲语言的特点，使得在历史上很长一段时间内，汉语被很多语言学家认为没有语法也没有词类，直到20世纪著名历史学家威尔·杜兰在《文明的故事》第一卷《东方的遗产》一书中仍然认为汉语没有语法和词类。现在的观点认为，汉语有语法也有词类，只是它的语法不同于欧洲语言，而且一个词语存在多词性现象。
汉语语法的另外一个特点是省略。不影響大概意思的词往往省略掉。
目录[隐藏]
1 語素
2 词
2.1 音節形式
2.2 內部結構
2.2.1 单纯词
2.2.1.1 连绵词(連緜詞)
2.2.1.2 叠声词
2.2.1.3 拟声词
2.2.1.4 音译外来词
2.2.2 合成词
2.2.3 歧义
2.3 語法功能
2.3.1 名词
2.3.2 動詞
2.3.3 形容詞
2.3.4 狀態詞
2.3.5 區別詞
2.3.6 数词
2.3.7 量词
2.3.8 代词
2.3.9 副词
2.3.10 介词
2.3.11 连词
2.3.12 助词
2.3.13 語氣詞
2.4 字母词语
3 詞組（短語）
3.1 并列（联合）短语
3.2 同位短语
3.3 偏正短语
3.4 动宾（述宾）短语
3.5 谓补（述补）短语
3.6 主谓短语
3.7 连动（连谓）短语
3.8 兼语短语
3.9 介宾短语
3.10 “的地得”（程度状态连接语素）
3.10.1 “的”字用法
3.10.2 “地”字用法
3.10.3 “得”字用法
3.10.4 三者的语境
4 句子
4.1 單句
4.1.1 主謂句
4.1.1.1 完全主謂句
4.1.1.2 不完全主謂句
4.1.2 非主謂句
4.2 複句與分句
4.3 把字句
4.4 被字句
4.5 把字句和被字句的转换
5 时态
5.1 现在时
5.2 过去时
5.3 将来时
5.4 进行时
5.5 完成时
5.6 时态的组合
6 句群
7 相關條目
//

[编辑] 語素
主条目：语素
在现代汉语裡，语素是最小的语音语义结合体，是最小的语言单位。“一个语言片段，一层一层的切分，分到不能再分的最小的单位，就是语素。”例如，“树胶”这个词可以分成“树”与“胶”两个语素，有“树木所产生的胶汁”之意。
在汉语里，大多数的单字同时也是一个语素，例如：“我、他、家、飞、跟、动、太、是、日、月、过、了、着、啊、呀”等等；不过，有些语素由两个以上的汉字组成，如“蜻蜓”、“葡萄”等，因为当“蜻”与“蜓”、“葡”与“萄”分开时，并不会带来任何含义，或者单字语素的含义和前者没有直接关系，如“葡”（葡萄牙的简称）与“葡萄”（一种水果）。
一些二字单词如“马虎”也是一个语素，因为“马虎”（形容草率）拆成“马”与“虎”时，“马”与“虎”这两个字所带的语素含义和“草率”没有关系。还有许多外来音译词，如：“巧克力、维基、英格兰、葡萄牙”等等也是不能再拆分的语素。
有些语素可以单独成词，如：“我、家、有、个、大、徘徊”等等，称为单纯词，也可以和其他语素合成一个新的词，如：“书包、百科、跑步、天气、葡萄糖”等等，称为合成词。还有许多不能单独成词的语素，即不自由语素和半自由词素。
依音节位数来划分，可分为：
单音节语素
双音节语素
多音节语素
非音节语素
依构词能力来划分，可分为：
自由语素
半自由语素
不自由语素

[编辑] 词
汉语词类，有别于其它语言，特别是汉语作为意音文字，更有别于拼音文字。汉语词性也和其他语言有共性，词语可以拥有两种或以上词性，从文法的角度来看，和其他语言之间共有的基本词类有动词、名词、代词、形容词、副词、介词和连接词等。
汉语词类没有统一的划分标准，分类方法很多，基本上可按照詞的音節形式、詞的內部結構及語法功能三方面來分類。

[编辑] 音節形式
單音節詞
雙音節詞
多音節詞

[编辑] 內部結構
只由一個語素構成的詞稱為單純詞，由兩個或以上語素構成的詞稱為合成詞。

[编辑] 单纯词
主条目：单纯词
所有单音节的词，都是单纯词，例：天、人、地、山、跑、撞、好。
多音节语素独立而成的单纯词，可分为：

[编辑] 连绵词(連緜詞)

[编辑] 叠声词

[编辑] 拟声词

[编辑] 音译外来词

[编辑] 合成词
主条目：合成词
合成詞由两个以上的语素合成，可分再為下列幾種結構：聯合式、偏正式、主謂式、動賓式、補充式、重疊式、附加式。
聯合式：組成的語素意義相同、相近、相反或相關。
例：国家、左右、上下、江河、江山、宫殿、子女、兄弟姐妹、手足、父母、管理、动摇、超越、攻击、皇帝、美丽。
偏正式：前一個語素限制或修飾後一個語素，詞的意義以後一個語素為主，前一個語素只起附加作用，前為偏，後為正。
例：橡胶、葡萄糖、蔗糖、书包、背包、羽毛球、篮球、图书馆、校园、学校、春天、雨天、偷袭、狠心、好心、科学、郊游。
主謂式：前一個語素表示被陳述的物件，後一個語素表示陳述的情況。
例：地震、土崩、沙尘暴、民主、海啸、冬至。
動賓式：前一個語素表示動作、行為，後一個語素表示動作、行為所支配的對象。詞的前部分通常是動詞，後部分是名詞，也可以是動詞或形容詞。
例：走路、赶路、起步、参军、游水、伤心、开心、司法、行政。
補充式：後一個語素補充說明前一個語素，詞的意義以前一個語素為主。前部分是述語，只能是動詞或名詞，後部分是補語，通常是動詞、形容詞或狀態詞。
例：推动、赶走、说服、书本、车辆、花朵、马匹、纸张。
重疊式：相同的語素重疊組成，
例：走走、看看、听听、婆婆、妈妈、爷爷、苦苦、囡囡、细细。
附加式：加上前缀或后缀的词，一般上前缀与后缀为不自由语素。可分为前加式与后加式。
前加式，例：老鼠、老虎、老师、老外、老末、老大、阿嬷、阿姨、第一。
后加式，例：狮子、桌子、椅子、猴子、花儿、鸟儿、活性、惰性、好的、快乐的。
两者综合，例：可塑性、小三儿、反全球化

[编辑] 歧义
一个词在没有语境的情况下不能只按字面意义解释，如主謂式的“冬至”中冬为名词，指冬天；至为动词，指来到，字面上可以理解为“冬天 来了”，例如而更为作为单词是指中国农历里的一个节气，是日照时间最短的一天。由此也可看出，以构词法组成的词，其含义虽不能逐字理解，但也和构词语素有一定联系。

[编辑] 語法功能
基本分为实词和虚词二类，也有人将拟声词与叹词其归入虚词。基本共用的词类划分有
实词：名词、動詞、形容詞、狀態詞、區別詞、数词、量词、代词
虚词：副词、介词、连词、助词、語氣詞

[编辑] 名词
表示人或事物(包括具体、抽象事物及时间、处所等)的名称。

[编辑] 動詞
表示動作、行為、心理活動或存在、變化、消失等。
玩 打 畫 寫 走 跑 跳 看 聽 哭 笑 叫 喊

[编辑] 形容詞
美丽的 漂亮的 醜陋的 溫柔的 凶狠的 棒的 好的

[编辑] 狀態詞

[编辑] 區別詞

[编辑] 数词
如：负二、零、一、十九点零三、一十八、十万九千七百、两千零八、十三亿、十万万

[编辑] 量词
个 支 块、包、攤、車、袋、堆、群、箱、碗

[编辑] 代词
如：我，她，它，你们，某些人，那个

[编辑] 副词
起修饰，限制动词或形容词作用，表示程度或范围的词。副词可独立作为句子成份（如状语）。如：正在、刚刚、有时、常常、不断地、在（修饰动词），很、非常、极度、太（修饰形容词）。

[编辑] 介词
置于代名词（或相当于名词的短语、从句）前、用以修饰后者的虚词，不能单独成句子成份，例如：从、在、跟、和、对、向、被、当、往。

[编辑] 连词
将两组单句联系起来的虚词，使之成为一个复句，用以表示前后两组单句的承接关系。如：和、与、及、以及、可是、但是、虽然……但是、因為……所以、是……不是、如果……那么、如果……就、由于……因此、与其……不如、要是……就、不但……而且、不止……还、既……也、要么……要么、一边……一边、一面……一面。

[编辑] 助词
不独立的虚词，多用来联系谓语、补语及宾语成份，如：着、了、地、得、的。
语气词有时也被归类为助词，称作“语气助词”。

[编辑] 語氣詞
有时也称为语气助词，多用于句尾，表达句子的语气。如：呀，嗎，啊，吧，呢。

[编辑] 字母词语
词语中的“字母词语”，汉语中有很多外来语（这些“字母词语”能不能算汉语和是否应该引入汉语具有争议），特别是英语构成的词语，形式有
直接借用外语或数字的缩写或编号构成词语，如WTO、NBA、CIA、3D、N95、F22等；
由字母加汉语语素汉字构成的词语，如e化、IC卡、IP电话、SIM卡、PC机、pH值、IT产业等；
直接引用英语科学术语或计算机程序语言不作汉化， linux、windows、e-Mail，主要集中于科技领域；
直接引用其他语言的读音或加上汉字（多为类别等限定性的语素，前后皆可，亦有前后都加的）的汉语，如：坦克、尼龙、摩托车、因特网、珠穆朗玛峰、歇斯底里、小卡特河(Little Carter River)，拷贝，（动词名词均有），克隆，蒙太奇等；
直接引用外文对词语的写法，而成为一个或多个新的语素（主要来自源于汉语的日语）。如派出所、不动产、科学（康有为与20世纪初从日本引入）、电话、卡拉OK等；
对外文进行音译和意译的结合，如可口可乐、T恤、维他命、盖世太保、嬉皮士、几何、迷你等；
直接引用外语的写法，原因是汉语中没有用于表述该词的词语或者那个词语本身就是无意义的。如物种拉丁名如Alveolata。
化学元素周期表中的化学名称，如金属类用金字旁，例如：铁、铜、铝等，非金属固体用石字旁，例如：碳、硅、磷等，非金属气体用气字头表示，例如：氧 氮 氦 氢、氖、氡，但是金属中的汞除外，是金属但是不是金字旁。（有不足之处请补充）

[编辑] 詞組（短語）
主条目：词组
短语由两个以上的词所组成，一般上不算是完整句子。根据词性成份，可分为并列短语、同位短语、偏正短语、动宾短语、谓补短语、主谓短语、连动短语、兼语短语、介宾短语等。

[编辑] 并列（联合）短语
由两个以上意义、词性相当的词并列组成的短语，之间可能有介词或连词、连接，例：“我和他”、“美丽聪慧”、“高大威猛”、“唱歌跳舞”、“又唱又跳”、“一边走路，一边赏花”、“陆地与海洋”。

[编辑] 同位短语
由两个以上词语组成、从不同角度指同一事物的短语，例：“我们两个”、“咱们仨”、“中華民國總統馬英九”、“世界最长的建筑物——万里长城”、“马来西亚首都吉隆坡”、“台湾作家龙应台”、“诗仙李白”、“诗圣杜甫”、“东方之珠香港”。

[编辑] 偏正短语
前面的词修饰、描述后面的中心词而组成的短语，中间可能有介词“的”、“之”、“地”等连接，例：“我的妈妈”、“美丽的上海”、“美国总统”、“我家”、“高兴地说”。

[编辑] 动宾（述宾）短语
前面的动词支配后面的词（宾语），例：“看书”、“唱歌”、“洗衣服”、“编写新书”、“做蛋糕”、“听歌”、“穿越森林”。

[编辑] 谓补（述补）短语
后面的词（补语）补充前面的动词（谓语），中间可能有介词“得”连接，例：“吓坏”、“打破”、“打死”、“看得入神”、“笑成一团”、“走得快”、“变得不像样”。

[编辑] 主谓短语
主語和謂語是一對相互依存的概念。在後面陳述主語的叫謂語，在前面被謂語陳述的稱之為主語，有主才有謂，反之亦然。語法體系裡不存在「沒有主語的謂語」，也沒有「單獨存在的主語」。果真沒有謂語時，「主語」也不是主語了，反之亦然，例：你开始哭了、他坚持离去、小明没有带东西；斜体字部份为主谓短语。

[编辑] 连动（连谓）短语
描述两个以上连续、接连而下动作的短语，先做了前面的动作再做接下来的动作，不同于并列短语，一般有两个以上的动词，例如：“开门出去”、“拿起书包开门出去”、“起立行礼”、“提笔写字”、“拿起来看看”

[编辑] 兼语短语
由动宾短语与主谓短语组合起来的短语，例：“叫他出去”、“抓他出来”、“哄孩子睡觉”、“供一家吃饭”、“教学生读书”、“学老师讲话”。

[编辑] 介宾短语
由介词（在前）与宾语（在后）组成的短语，例：我在家里睡觉、我和你一起走走。

[编辑] “的地得”（程度状态连接语素）
此处讨论“的”“地”“得”三个词是指汉语中特殊的连接词，并非用作介词和语气助词。 严格的说这三个字并不算词语，而是联系语素。

[编辑] “的”字用法
用于连接形容词（或表示状态的短语）和其后被作用的词语，可以是名词、代词、动词（做名词时）、形容词、短语等。“的”字前面的词语用来修饰、限制“的”后面的事物，表示“的”后面的事物怎么样。
而名词和代词后面用“的”表示所有和归属，与上述不同。
例：
蓝蓝的天（形容词＋的＋名词）
可爱的你（形容词＋的＋代名詞）
漫无目的的搜索（状态短语＋的＋动名词，此时“搜索”是动名词，如：探险队在森林里作出一次漫无目的的搜索。）
可供查证的参考来源（状态短语+的＋名词性短语）
漂亮的蓝（形容词＋的＋形容词，在这种结构下，“蓝”起名词的作用）

[编辑] “地”字用法
状态词或状态短语＋地构成状语，其后连接被作用的词语，主要是动词和动词短语。Ａ＋地＋Ｂ的结构，表示动作Ｂ以状态Ａ进行着。
“地”在一般使用中极容易混淆成“的”，而按照约定俗成的习惯也认可“的”代替“地”这种用法（因为在汉语中，动作本身可以被看作是一个名词）。另外，“地”字也经常被省略掉。
例：
飞快地跑开了（副词+动词短语）
紧张地耕作（副词+动词）
漫无目的地搜索（状态短语＋地＋动词，此时“走动”是动词，如：探险队在森林里漫无目的地搜索。）
高兴地跳起来（副词+动词短语，此时“跳起来”是动词短语，表示动作，如：第二个动作还没完成，他就高兴地跳起来。）

[编辑] “得”字用法
用于连接动词、副词、形容词、或表示状态的短语（但不能是名词、代词、数词、量词等以及不能表现状态的短语）和其后被作用的词语，主要是形容词和副词以及状态短语。“得”字后面的词语用来补充、修饰、限制“得”前面的动作或状态，说明“得”前面的词语怎么样，多是表示前面词语的程度，可以部分看作是“地”的反转结构。
例：
跑得快（动词+副词）
扔得很远（动词+形容词）
你的背包旧得很好看（形容词+形容词短语）
高兴得跳起来（副词+动词短语，此时“跳起来”是状态短语，表示动作，用于修饰“高兴”，如：所有动作完成后，他禁不住高兴得跳起来。）

[编辑] 三者的语境
可以简单的认为：
“的”字表示事物的状态，强调的是“的”字前面的词语；
“地”字表示动作的状态，强调的是“地”字前面的词语；
“得”字表示状态的补充，强调的是“得”字后面的词语。

[编辑] 句子
句子分為單句及複句。單句分為主謂句及非主謂句。

[编辑] 單句

[编辑] 主謂句
主谓句是由主谓短语带上一定的语调构成的句子。
根据谓语词性不同，主谓句可分为名词谓语句、动词谓语句、形容词谓语句、主谓谓语句四种类型。其中，主谓谓语句是由主谓短语充当谓语的主谓句。
如果根据主语的存廢來劃分，主谓句又可分为完全主谓句和不完全主谓句。

[编辑] 完全主謂句
「完全主謂句」就是指句子裡有主謂結構並且主謂部分都顯現出來，沒有被省略的句子。例如：
小強被金錢龜吃了
「被金錢龜吃了」的謂語部分就是對主語「小強」的陳述了。

[编辑] 不完全主謂句
「不完全主謂句」是指句子裡有主謂結構，但主語或謂語部分可能在特定的語境裡承前或蒙後省略了，沒全都顯現出來的句子。例如：
毛小慧問道：「誰被金錢龜吃了？」余樂天淒然嘆喟：「小強！」
要注意的是，「不完全主謂句」裡，被省略的主語或謂語成分並非不存在，只是在特定語境裡，為簡鍊而省略了，我們是可以按文意酌情補回省略了的主、謂部分而不影響文意的。上例「小強。」便是「不完全主謂句」，我們能按文意補上「～被金錢龜吃了」使之變成「完全主謂句」而意義不變的，但因為承前文毛小慧的問話，不說自明，所以省去謂語部分更好。

[编辑] 非主謂句
「非主謂句」跟「不完全主謂句」外觀上相似，不過跟「不完全主謂句」不同，「非主謂句」之所以不呈現主謂結構，並非因為在特定語境承前蒙後而把主語或謂語略省了，而是因為「非主謂句」的確是沒有主謂結構的句子，這是「不完全主謂句」和「非主謂句」的根本分別。譬如，有時在特定場合裡，我們在沒有上文下理的情況下，帶語調地喊一句「小強。」（或「小強！」或「小強？」，或驚恐或歡欣，視乎喊「小強」的是余樂天還是毛小慧），也能表達一個完整的意思。這不是主語或謂語的省略，而是根本無需補出主謂結構。我們雖然可以任意為「小強」補上語境或其他句子成分使之成為主謂句，但無論補上什麼，原句的語意都一定會被改變。也就是說，改了以後，也是另一句句子。我們根本無法在原句本義不變的情況下補出一個合適的主謂結構來。「不完全主謂句」和「非主謂句」的分別就在此顯明了

[编辑] 複句與分句
複句由分句構成（「分句」也有稱為「單句形式」）。有異於短語之於句子，分句在句子裡並不互為句子成分，而且，各分句均已具備單句的形式（可以是單句的主謂句形式或非主謂句形式）。
當然，這獨立性只是相對短語而言。「單句形式」的獨立性還是遜於「單句」的。
我們試以「複句會使用關聯詞語，單句不使用關聯詞語」這句為例。這複句的兩個分句都具備了單句的形式，它們各自是一個完備的主謂句結構，且分句與分句之間也只是並列關係，並不存在主謂賓定狀補等句子成分關係。假使獨立出來，觀之亦與一句完整的單句無異。假使我們把上例兩個單句形式單獨運用來表述意思時，它們是就是兩句單句，可以各自有完整的語調。
當然，作為複句，合讀時自有複句的句調，不可割裂。複句裡的分句，也不具備完整的意義，不可獨立應用，不足表述一個完整自足、不用補充的概念。
复句的基本类型：1、并列复句，2、承接复句，3、递进复句，4、选择复句，5、转折复句，6、假设复句，7、因果复句，8、条件复句，9、解说复句，10、目的复句。

[编辑] 把字句
该句型是属于宾语前置的一种情况，在现代汉语中，一个完整的句子是比较严格的遵循“主+谓+宾”的顺序结构的。该种句型来自于古汉语，“把”字是将宾语提前的一个特征，成为“主+‘把’+宾+谓”的语序，亦可将“把”看作是谓语，而后的动词看作是谓语补足语。可以认为“把”的语义与英语中的“take to”相同。 等同于“把”字的动词还有“将”“拿”等，但语境更为书面化（特别是“拿”字句）。
例：
小明把鼠标拿到手中。
病毒把系统破坏了。
我手持钢鞭将你打。
请将书翻到53页。
他将旗子举起。
夕阳将傍晚的天空照得通红。
午时三刻拿重犯开刀问斩。
我将拿你是问！（此处的“将”代表将来语态）

[编辑] 被字句
被字句在汉语当中用表示被动语态，此时的次序为“宾+‘被’主+谓”，亦可将被字句看作与把字句相似的句型，二者都是将谓语后置（如果将受动者看成是主语的话）。
但与把字句不同的是：被字句可以省略掉主语，亦可省略“被”字（本句话完整的表达为“被字句可以被省略掉主语，亦可被省略掉‘被’字”，但这样不太符合汉语的一般表达）。
“被”字也可以用“遭”“叫”“让”“给”字代替（多出现在方言或口语当中，相对少见）以及“为”“受”字代替（多用于书面语和古文）。
例：
我被打了。（省略主语）
我被他打了。
我遭他打了。
我给人打了。
他叫人给糊弄了。
一世英豪竟为奸人所害。
受制于人。
矿泉水遭他喝完了。
你让他骗了。
鱼将被小猫吃掉。
他被无耻的叛徒出卖。
囚犯被关押在一个秘密的地方。（省略主语，“一个秘密的地方”是状语）

[编辑] 把字句和被字句的转换
把字句和被字句可以相互转换，即按照“宾+‘被’主+谓”和“主+‘把’+宾+谓”的顺序进行互换，在这种情况下，被字句中通常不能有省略掉的成分（在一些文学作品中，根据上下文的连接也可在把字句中省略主语，但和被字句强调的成分不同）。
例：
他把我打了 <-> 我被他打了。
鱼将被小猫吃掉 <-> 小猫将把鱼吃掉。
“他做了什么？”“把我敲晕了！” <-> “他做了什么？”“我被敲晕了！”（前一句的语境强调施动者的动作，后一句强调受动者的感受）

[编辑] 时态
汉语中动词没有时态的变化，而时态也不如英语中那么分明和强烈，通常是通过时间状语和一些“时态词”（如原来、曾经、了、掉、完成、将、正在、已经、开始、结束等）来表示动作的时态。

[编辑] 现在时
该时态是最常见的，同于英语，不用加上时间状语和“时态词”。
例：
这个网站是维基百科。
运动员跑步。
他名叫“徐庶”。

[编辑] 过去时
对过去的动作描述多加上时间状语或“原来”“曾经”等时态词。
例：
这个网站过去不是维基百科。
运动员昨天下午在跑步。
他曾经名为“单福”。

[编辑] 将来时
对未来的动作描述多加上时间状语或“将”“要”等时态词。
例：
这个网站将成为全球最大的百科全书网站。
运动员明天跑步。
他要更名为“徐元直”。

[编辑] 进行时
对进行中的动作描述多加上时间状语或“正在”“正”“在”等时态词。
例：
这个网站正在成为全球最大的百科全书网站。
运动员目前正在跑步。
他正着手于改名为“徐元直”的手续。

[编辑] 完成时
对完成的动作描述多加上时间状语并加上“完成”“已经”“了”等时态词。
例：
这个网站已经成为了全球最大的百科全书网站。
运动员跑完了。
他已经改名叫“徐元直”。

[编辑] 时态的组合
同于英语，以上时态可以进行组合。
例：
这个网站昨天已经成为了全球最大的百科全书网站。（过去完成时）
两年前，这个网站正在成为全球最大的百科全书网站。（过去进行时）
当时就知道这个网站将成为全球最大的百科全书网站。（过去将来时）
这个网站直到现在还是全球最大的百科全书网站。（现在完成进行时）
运动员还在跑步。（现在完成进行时）
他叫徐庶已经三年多了。（现在完成进行时）
他去年更名单福后又要改成叫徐元直。（过去将来时）
运动员说他们将要跑步。（过去将来进行时）
运动员要开始跑步了。（将来进行时）
他将要做的事情是去将名字改成徐元直。（过去将来进行时）
明天这个时候，他将去办理更名叫徐元直的手续。（将来进行时）
明天这个时候，他将更名叫徐元直。（将来完成时）
运动员将在一个钟头后跑完。（将来完成时）
运动员一个钟头后还会继续跑下去。（将来完成进行时）
庞士元和诸葛孔明说他明年还是会名叫徐元直。（过去将来完成进行时）
到三点钟时运动员就跑了一个小时二十分钟了。（过去将来完成进行时）
到2020年，这个网站会继续保持成为全球最大的百科全书网站的历史最长时间记录。（过去将来完成进行时）
……不一一类举，汉语中对时态的需求求并不如英语那般正式和迫切，只需要将事件描述清楚，不必在乎到底是什么时态。相反的，过分在乎时态会导致描述的不准确。

[编辑] 句群
句群是大於句子的語言片斷，它是由一組有明晰的中心意思、前後銜接連貫的句子組成的，同時它又是文章段落的組成材料。
句群不同於複句，從書面形式看，複句祇有一個句末標點，而句群不止一個句末標點；複句內部的分句結構比較嚴密，常使用成群的或單個的關聯詞語，而句群中的句子和句子之間在結構上比較鬆散，不需要特別使用關聯詞語來表示句子與句子的語義關係；此外，句群還用詞彙手段關聯句子，也即用相同或相似的詞語來關聯，這也是與複句不同的。
句群和文章的自然段落也不同。一般而言，自然段落是比句群大的語言片段，自然段落通常包含了一個以上的句群。有的時候，段落與句群是重合的，一個句群就是一個自然段落，少數的時候，自然段落比句群還要小，句群裡的句子被分為了幾個自然段落。
句群的分類在語法學上最有意義的是對句群結構類型的分類，這種分類是根據句群內部句子之間組合關係的類型。句群的結構類型常見的有十種：
一：並列關係 特點是句群內部的句子是平等並列的關係，各個句子對一件事物的不同方面進行描述，或從不同角度敘述幾件有密切關係的事物；
二：順承關係 各個句子按時間或事件的發展先後順序排列，前後句子是承接的關係；
三：是遞進關係 後面的句子在意思上比前面的句子更進一層；
四：是總分關係 句子之間一般是先總說，後分說；
五：是選擇關係 各個句子都是說明情況，讓人從中選擇一種；
六：是轉折關係 前後的句子在意思上有轉折；
七：是因果關係 前後句子有原因和結果的關係；
八：是假設關係 也就是前後的句子是假設和結果的關係；
九：是條件關係 前面的句子提出條件，後面的句子說出結果；
十：是目的關係 前面的句子提到某種行為，後面的句子說到行為的目的。
如果句群內部的句子之間祇有一種結構關係，即一個結構層次，就是簡單句群；如果句群內部的句子結構關係不止一種，其結構層次不止一層，就是多重句群。
句群的切分，是指一個自然段包含有幾個句群時，如何劃分句群的問題。劃分句群，主要是要根據句子之間的語義關係，分出自然段裡有幾個相對獨立的語義中心，圍繞著這些語義中心組合起來的句子，就是一個句群。要注意的是，組成自然段的不但有句群，也會有句子，切分時要把句群和句子分清楚。

[编辑] 相關條目
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来自“http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95”
分类: 汉语语法 特定語言語法
1个隐藏分类: 自2009年3月缺少来源的条目